176PathwayValsartan Action PathwayValsartan (also named Diovan) is an antagonist of angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs). Valsartan competes with angiotensin II to bind type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) in many tissues (e.g. vascular smooth muscle, the adrenal glands, etc.) to prevent increasing sodium, water reabsorption and peripheral resistance (that will lead to increasing blood pressure) via aldosterone secretion that is caused by angiotensin II. Therefore, action of valsartan binding to AT1 will result in decreasing blood pressure. For more information on the effects of aldosterone on electrolyte and water excretion, refer to the description of the \spironolactone\:http://pathman.smpdb.ca/pathways/SMP00134/pathway or \triamterene\:http://pathman.smpdb.ca/pathways/SMP00132/pathway pathway, which describes the mechanism of direct aldosterone antagonists. Valsartan is an effective agent for reducing blood pressure and may be used to treat essential hypertension and heart failure.Drug ActionPW000285TopPathwayVisualizationContext3017651001#000099PathwayVisualization205176Valsartan PathwayValsartan (also named Diovan) is an antagonist of angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs). Valsartan competes with angiotensin II to bind type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) in many tissues (e.g. vascular smooth muscle, the adrenal glands, etc.) to prevent increasing sodium, water reabsorption and peripheral resistance (that will lead to increasing blood pressure) via aldosterone secretion that is caused by angiotensin II. Therefore, action of valsartan binding to AT1 will result in decreasing blood pressure. For more information on the effects of aldosterone on electrolyte and water excretion, refer to the description of the \spironolactone\:http://pathman.smpdb.ca/pathways/SMP00134/pathway or \triamterene\:http://pathman.smpdb.ca/pathways/SMP00132/pathway pathway, which describes the mechanism of direct aldosterone antagonists. Valsartan is an effective agent for reducing blood pressure and may be used to treat essential hypertension and heart failure.Drug1454Valsartan inhibition of Type-1 angiotensin II receptor InhibitorySubPathway7218724Compound14722707ProteinComplex14454Bader, M. Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. In S. Offermanns, & W. Rosenthal (Eds.). Encyclopedic reference of molecular pharmacology (2004) p.810-814. Berlin, Germany: Springer.176Pathway455Diovan. (2009). e-CPS (online version of Compendium of Pharmaceuticals and Specialties). Retrieved December 28, 2009.176Pathway456Stanfield, C.L., & Germann, W.J. Principles of human physiology (3rd ed.) (2008). San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education, Inc.;176Pathway1CellCL:00000003NeuronCL:00005404Cardiomyocyte CL:00007468Beta cellCL:00006391Homo sapiens9606EukaryoteHuman3Escherichia coli562Prokaryote24Solanum lycopersicum4081EukaryoteTomato18Saccharomyces cerevisiae4932EukaryoteYeast21Xenopus laevis8355EukaryoteAfrican clawed frog4Arabidopsis thaliana3702EukaryoteThale cress12Mus musculus10090EukaryoteMouse49Bathymodiolus platifrons220390EukaryoteDeep sea mussel60Nitzschia sp.0001EukaryoteNitzschia45Bos taurus9913EukaryoteCattle17Rattus norvegicus10116EukaryoteRat10Drosophila melanogaster7227EukaryoteFruit fly6Caenorhabditis elegans6239EukaryoteRoundworm62Acinetobacter baylyi (strain ATCC 33305 / BD413 / ADP1)62977Prokaryote56Andro6666Eukaryote10Cell MembraneGO:00058865CytoplasmGO:00057373Mitochondrial MatrixGO:00057591CytosolGO:00058298Blood VesselBTO:0001102741124BrainBTO:000014289166KidneyBTO:000067171832Adrenal CortexBTO:000004518PancreasBTO:000098814101PW_BS0000145181PW_BS0000518511PW_BS0000084311PW_BS0000042111PW_BS000002731013PW_BS00007385241011PW_BS000085103331PW_BS0001031553241PW_BS0001551613181PW_BS0001611783211PW_BS000178222341PW_BS0000241151012PW_BS0001152111018PW_BS0000241985181PW_BS0000242905491PW_BS000024151141PW_BS00015111PW_BS0000011333121PW_BS0001331115121PW_BS0001111321121PW_BS0001323683601PW_BS0000283081011PW_BS0000241644PW_BS000164253541PW_BS000024406351PW_BS000115122551PW_BS000122124151PW_BS000124405105PW_BS0001151203171PW_BS0001201355171PW_BS0001351181171PW_BS0001183761017PW_BS0000534793101PW_BS0001152975101PW_BS000024501361PW_BS000115205561PW_BS000024451014PW_BS0000456361PW_BS000063608321PW_BS00050165110624PW_BS0005086651818PW_BS0005086618518PW_BS000066599856PW_BS000501504PW_B00050414266636ProteinComplex11427936Compound114286637ProteinComplex11429736ProteinComplex1936Guanosine diphosphateHMDB0001201Guanosine 5'-(trihydrogen diphosphate). A guanine nucleotide containing two phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. It is an ester of pyrophosphoric acid with the nucleoside guanosine. GDP consists of the pyrophosphate group, the pentose sugar ribose, and the nucleobase guanine. GDP is the product of GTP dephosphorylation by GTPases, e.g. the G-proteins that are involved in signal transduction.146-91-8C00035897717552GDP-4-DEHYDRO-6-DEOXY-D-MANNOSE8630NC1=NC2=C(N=CN2[C@@H]2O[C@H](COP(O)(=O)OP(O)(O)=O)[C@@H](O)[C@H]2O)C(=O)N1C10H15N5O11P2InChI=1S/C10H15N5O11P2/c11-10-13-7-4(8(18)14-10)12-2-15(7)9-6(17)5(16)3(25-9)1-24-28(22,23)26-27(19,20)21/h2-3,5-6,9,16-17H,1H2,(H,22,23)(H2,19,20,21)(H3,11,13,14,18)/t3-,5-,6-,9-/m1/s1QGWNDRXFNXRZMB-UUOKFMHZSA-N[({[(2R,3S,4R,5R)-5-(2-amino-6-oxo-6,9-dihydro-3H-purin-9-yl)-3,4-dihydroxyoxolan-2-yl]methoxy}(hydroxy)phosphoryl)oxy]phosphonic acid443.2005443.024329371-2.007{[(2R,3S,4R,5R)-5-(2-amino-6-oxo-3H-purin-9-yl)-3,4-dihydroxyoxolan-2-yl]methoxy(hydroxy)phosphoryl}oxyphosphonic acid0-3FDB0224875'-gdp;Gdp;Guanosine 5'-(trihydrogen pyrophosphate);Guanosine 5'-diphosphate;Guanosine 5'-pyrophosphate;Guanosine mono(trihydrogen diphosphate);Guanosine pyrophosphate;Guanosine-5'-diphosphate;Guanosine-diphosphate;Ppg;Guanosine diphosphate;Guanosine 5'-diphosphoric acidPW_C000936GDP838238417621423912415473500785538210360411556101161648817874762221175411511771211118231981272729013395151693221771421337754611177952132800233688008030880122164891152531199834061200681221212051241218474051227661201228201351237751181244003761253634791254452971269055011269842058724ValsartanHMDB0014323Valsartan is an angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) that may be used to treat a variety of cardiac conditions including hypertension, diabetic nephropathy and heart failure. Valsartan lowers blood pressure by antagonizing the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS); it competes with angiotensin II for binding to the type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) subtype and prevents the blood pressure increasing effects of angiotensin II. Unlike angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. Valsartan may be used to treat hypertension, isolated systolic hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy and diabetic nephropathy. It may also be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of heart failure, systolic dysfunction, myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease.137862-53-460846992754833DB00177CCCCC(=O)N(CC1=CC=C(C=C1)C1=CC=CC=C1C1=NNN=N1)[C@@H](C(C)C)C(O)=OC24H29N5O3InChI=1S/C24H29N5O3/c1-4-5-10-21(30)29(22(16(2)3)24(31)32)15-17-11-13-18(14-12-17)19-8-6-7-9-20(19)23-25-27-28-26-23/h6-9,11-14,16,22H,4-5,10,15H2,1-3H3,(H,31,32)(H,25,26,27,28)/t22-/m0/s1ACWBQPMHZXGDFX-QFIPXVFZSA-N(2S)-3-methyl-2-[N-({4-[2-(2H-1,2,3,4-tetrazol-5-yl)phenyl]phenyl}methyl)pentanamido]butanoic acid435.5188435.227039819-4.272valsartan0-1(s)-n-valeryl-n-{[2'-(1h-tetrazol-5-yl)biphenyl-4-yl]-methyl}-valine;Diovan;N-(p-(o-1h-tetrazol-5-ylphenyl)benzyl)-n-valeryl-l-valine;N-pentanoyl-n-{[2'-(1h-tetrazol-5-yl)biphenyl-4-yl]methyl}-l-valinePW_C008724Valsart305114816Angiotensin IIHMDB0001035Angiotensin II is a hormone that may act on the central nervous system to regulate renal sympathetic nerve activity, renal function, and, therefore, blood pressure. Angiotensin II is produced locally within the kidney and mediates tissue injury through a series of nonhemodynamic effects. angiotensin II is not only involved in the regulation of blood pressure, water and sodium homeostasis, and control of other neurohumoral systems, but also leads to excessive production of reactive oxygen species and to hypertrophy, proliferation, migration, and apoptosis of vascular cells. Angiotensin II is one of the main factors involved in hypertension-induced tissue damage. This peptide regulates the inflammatory process. Angiotensin II activates circulating cells, and participates in their adhesion to the activated endothelium and subsequent transmigration through the synthesis of adhesion molecules, chemokines and cytokines. Among the intracellular signals involved in angiotensin II-induced inflammation, the production of reactive oxygen species and the activation of nuclear factor-kappaB are the best known. Classical, well-defined actions of Angiotensin II in the brain include the regulation of hormone formation and release, the control of the central and peripheral sympathoadrenal systems, and the regulation of water and sodium intake. As a consequence of changes in the hormone, sympathetic and electrolyte systems, feedback mechanisms in turn modulate the activity of the brain Angiotensin II systems. There are two Angiotensin II systems in the brain. The discovery of brain Angiotensin II receptors located in neurons inside the blood brain barrier confirmed the existence of an endogenous brain Angiotensin II system, responding to Angiotensin II generated in and/or transported into the brain. In addition, Angiotensin II receptors in circumventricular organs and in cerebrovascular endothelial cells respond to circulating Angiotensin II of peripheral origin. Thus, the brain responds to both circulating and tissue Angiotensin II, and the two systems are integrated. (PMID: 17147923, 16672146, 16601568, 16481883, 16075377).4474-91-3C021351721982719150504CC[C@H](C)[C@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CC1=CC=C(O)C=C1)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CCCN=C(N)N)NC(=O)[C@@H](N)CC(O)=O)C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CN=CN1)C(=O)N1CCC[C@H]1C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CC=CC=C1)C(O)=OC50H71N13O12InChI=1S/C50H71N13O12/c1-5-28(4)41(47(72)59-36(23-31-25-54-26-56-31)48(73)63-20-10-14-38(63)45(70)60-37(49(74)75)22-29-11-7-6-8-12-29)62-44(69)35(21-30-15-17-32(64)18-16-30)58-46(71)40(27(2)3)61-43(68)34(13-9-19-55-50(52)53)57-42(67)33(51)24-39(65)66/h6-8,11-12,15-18,25-28,33-38,40-41,64H,5,9-10,13-14,19-24,51H2,1-4H3,(H,54,56)(H,57,67)(H,58,71)(H,59,72)(H,60,70)(H,61,68)(H,62,69)(H,65,66)(H,74,75)(H4,52,53,55)/t28-,33-,34-,35-,36-,37-,38-,40-,41-/m0/s1CZGUSIXMZVURDU-JZXHSEFVSA-N(3S)-3-amino-3-{[(1S)-1-{[(1S)-1-{[(1S)-1-{[(1S,2S)-1-{[(2S)-1-[(2S)-2-{[(1S)-1-carboxy-2-phenylethyl]carbamoyl}pyrrolidin-1-yl]-3-(1H-imidazol-5-yl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]carbamoyl}-2-methylbutyl]carbamoyl}-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]carbamoyl}-2-methylpropyl]carbamoyl}-4-[(diaminomethylidene)amino]butyl]carbamoyl}propanoic acid1046.17861045.534514801-4.8313(3S)-3-amino-3-{[(1S)-1-{[(1S)-1-{[(1S)-1-{[(1S,2S)-1-{[(2S)-1-[(2S)-2-{[(1S)-1-carboxy-2-phenylethyl]carbamoyl}pyrrolidin-1-yl]-3-(3H-imidazol-4-yl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]carbamoyl}-2-methylbutyl]carbamoyl}-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]carbamoyl}-2-methylpropyl]carbamoyl}-4-[(diaminomethylidene)amino]butyl]carbamoyl}propanoic acid01FDB0223831-8-angiotensin i;1-l-aspasaginyl-5-l-valyl angiotensin octapeptide;Ang ii;Angiotensin 2;Angiotensin ii (human);Angiotensin ii (mouse);Angiotonin;Asp-arg-val-tyr-ile-his-pro-phe;Human angiotensin ii;Hypertensin;Ile(5)-angiotensin ii;5-isoleucine-angiotensin ii;5-l-isoleucineangiotensin ii;Angiotensin;Angiotensin ii;Isoleucine(5)-angiotensin ii;N-(1-(n-(n-(n-(n-(n(2)-l-alpha-aspartyl-l-arginyl)-l-valyl)-l-tyrosyl)-l-isoleucyl)-l-histidyl)-l-prolyl)-l-phenylalanine;N-(1-(n-(n-(n-(n-(n(2)-l-a-aspartyl-l-arginyl)-l-valyl)-l-tyrosyl)-l-isoleucyl)-l-histidyl)-l-prolyl)-l-phenylalanine;N-(1-(n-(n-(n-(n-(n(2)-l-α-aspartyl-l-arginyl)-l-valyl)-l-tyrosyl)-l-isoleucyl)-l-histidyl)-l-prolyl)-l-phenylalaninePW_C000816Ang II2956512961141821Type-1 angiotensin II receptorP30556Receptor for angiotensin II. Mediates its action by association with G proteins that activate a phosphatidylinositol- calcium second messenger systemHMDBP02164AGTR13q24S77410127894529631413554263135551511360086081361376511740Guanine nucleotide-binding protein G(q) subunit alphaP50148Guanine nucleotide-binding proteins (G proteins) are involved as modulators or transducers in various transmembrane signaling systemsHMDBP02022GNAQ9q21U43083151631469323182715882836308136005608136185665136201663618GβP62873Guanine nucleotide-binding protein G(I)/G(S)/G(T) subunit beta-1 is a guanine nucleotide-binding protein (G protein) are involved as a modulator or transducer in various transmembrane signaling systems. The beta and gamma chains are required for the GTPase activity, for replacement of GDP by GTP, and for G protein- effector interactionHMDBP08398GNB11p36.33BC0058881381224138144157735010855161869324170006308135590599136006608136181661361876651591GγP59768Guanine nucleotide-binding protein G(I)/G(S)/G(O) subunit gamma-2 is a guanine nucleotide-binding proteins (G protein) involved as a modulator or transducer in various transmembrane signaling systems. The beta and gamma chains are required for the GTPase activity, for replacement of GDP by GTP, and for G protein- effector interactionHMDBP01767GNG214q21BC0207741693251700073088008214136007608136182661361886656636Gαq1PW_P0066361437717406930416637Gβγ1PW_P006637143783618143791591693111736Type-1 angiotensin II receptor1PW_P00073683018211296014707Type-1 angiotensin II receptor 21PW_P00070780018212787452848ActivationPW_I0028485695816Compound15696504Bound118375041420510942684310367014128198051463670142282080514736701432821805148367014426843109361453false56145512regular50306120872414157false11113510regular2001902684309816143false45110010regular1001009510471740142false56142010proteinregular1507095104836181498false6714409subunitregular1507095104915911497false6663908subunitregular1507095105018211480false3963558subunitregular200130252018211480false3963558subunitregular20013080514666362051494684595104780514766372051494684695104894684795104980514873620514946848951050225870720514251325209305M316 225 C346 225 502 222 502 318 148false18falsetrueM 505 230 L 505 215 L 505 2009306M436 425 C406 425 653 275 623 275 5true183670140M501 200 C501 238 502 343 501 380 149false183670141M611 140 L611 190 L661 140 z10true183670142M176 435 L176 485 L226 435 z10true183670143M176 495 L176 545 L226 495 z10true183670144M176 615 L176 665 L226 615 z10true183670145M501 380 C500 334 503 239 501 200 149false18trueM 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345false7902284820514187518373670145Right197326843093670140Left48745420514true47324016regular48061209305Left15622589306Right395M324 524 C324 474 374 424 424 424 C532 424 674 424 782 424 C832 424 882 474 882 524 C882 558 882 602 882 636 C882 686 832 736 782 736 C674 736 532 736 424 736 C374 736 324 686 324 636 C324 602 324 558 324 524 1true6558.0312.045108015Valsartan blocks angiotensin II from binding to type-1 angiotensin II receptor. Angiotensin II is unable to activate the receptor, Gαq, Gβγ, and GDP.619105201.31.316015CenterPathwayVisualizationContext63226503150#000099PathwayVisualization357377Angiotensin MetabolismAngiotensin is a peptide hormone that is part of the renin-angiotensin system responsible for regulating fluid homeostasis and blood pressure. It is involved in various means to increase the body's blood pressure, hence why it is a target for many pharmceutical drugs that treat hypertension and cardiac conditions. Angiotensin II, the primary agent to inducing an increased blood pressure, is formed in the general circulation when it is cleaved from a string of precursor molecules. Angiotensinogen is converted into angiotensin I with the action of renin, an enzyme secreted from the kidneys. From there, angiotensin I is converted to the central agent, angiotensin II, with the aid of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) so that it is available in the circulation to act on numerous areas in the body when an increase in blood pressure is needed.
Angiotensin II can act directly on receptors on the smooth muscle cells of the tunica media layer in the blood vessel to induce vasoconstriction and a subsequent increase in blood pressure. However, it can also influence the blood pressure by aiding in an increase of the circulating blood volume. Angiotensin II can cause vasopressin to be released, which is a hormone involved in regulating water reabsorption. Vasopressin is created in the supraoptic nuclei and they travel down the neurosecretory neuron axon to be stored in the neuronal terminals within the posterior pituitary. Angiotensin II in the cerebral circulation triggers the release of vasopressin from the posterior pituitary gland. From there, vasopressin enters into the systemic blood circulation where it eventually binds to receptors on epithelial cells in the collecting ducts of the nephron. The binding of vasopressin causes vesicles of epithelial cells to fuse with the plasma membrane. These vesicles contain aquaporin II, which are proteins that act as water channels once they have bound to the plasma membrane. As a result, the permeability of the collecting duct changes to allow for water reabsorption back into the blood circulation. Angiotensin II also has an effect on the hypothalmus, where it helps trigger a thirst sensation. Correspondingly, there will be an increase in oral water uptake into the body, which would then also increase the circulating blood volume. Another way that angiotensin II helps increase the blood volume is by acting on the adrenal cortex to stimulate aldosterone release, which is responsible for increasing sodium reuptake in the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting duct. It is formed when angiotensin II binds to receptors on the zona glomerulosa cells in the adrenal cortex, which triggers a signaling cascade that eventually activates the steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein to allow for cholesterol uptake into the mitochondria. Cholesterol then undergoes a series of reactions during steroidogenesis, which is a process that ultimately leads to the synthesis of aldosterone from cholesterol. Aldosterone then goes to act on the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct to make them more permeable to sodium to allow for its reuptake. Water subsequently follows sodium back into the system, which would therefore increase the circulating blood volume. In addition, potassium and hydrogen are also being excreted into the urine simultaneously to maintain the electrolyte balance. Physiological127972629190205Hussain M, Awan FR: Hypertension regulating angiotensin peptides in the pathobiology of cardiovascular disease. Clin Exp Hypertens. 2018;40(4):344-352. doi: 10.1080/10641963.2017.1377218. Epub 2017 Nov 30.377Pathway27972723886814Mori J, Zhang L, Oudit GY, Lopaschuk GD: Impact of the renin-angiotensin system on cardiac energy metabolism in heart failure. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2013 Oct;63:98-106. doi: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2013.07.010. Epub 2013 Jul 22.377Pathway27987624459521Yim HE, Yoo KH: Renin-Angiotensin system - considerations for hypertension and kidney. Electrolyte Blood Press. 2008 Jun;6(1):42-50. doi: 10.5049/EBP.2008.6.1.42. Epub 2008 Jun 30.377Pathway27987719427492Manrique C, Lastra G, Gardner M, Sowers JR: The renin angiotensin aldosterone system in hypertension: roles of insulin resistance and oxidative stress. Med Clin North Am. 2009 May;93(3):569-82. doi: 10.1016/j.mcna.2009.02.014.377Pathway1CellCL:00000002Platelet CL:00002335HepatocyteCL:00001824Cardiomyocyte CL:00007463NeuronCL:00005407Epithelial CellCL:00000668Beta cellCL:00006391Homo sapiens9606EukaryoteHuman3Escherichia coli562Prokaryote17Rattus norvegicus10116EukaryoteRat12Mus musculus10090EukaryoteMouse18Saccharomyces cerevisiae4932EukaryoteYeast4Arabidopsis thaliana3702EukaryoteThale cress49Bathymodiolus platifrons220390EukaryoteDeep sea mussel5Bos taurus9913EukaryoteCattle10Drosophila melanogaster7227EukaryoteFruit fly6Caenorhabditis elegans6239EukaryoteRoundworm2Bacteria2ProkaryoteBacteria19Schizosaccharomyces pombe4896Eukaryote24Solanum lycopersicum4081EukaryoteTomato21Xenopus laevis8355EukaryoteAfrican clawed frog25Escherichia coli (strain K12)83333Prokaryote23Pseudomonas aeruginosa287Prokaryote60Nitzschia sp.0001EukaryoteNitzschia451Picea sitchensis3332EukaryoteSitka spruce10Cell MembraneGO:00058861CytosolGO:00058293Mitochondrial MatrixGO:00057595CytoplasmGO:000573711Extracellular SpaceGO:00056154PeroxisomeGO:000577735ChloroplastGO:000950715NucleusGO:00056346LysosomeGO:00057642MitochondrionGO:000573916Lysosomal LumenGO:00432027Endoplasmic Reticulum MembraneGO:000578918Melanosome MembraneGO:003316213Endoplasmic ReticulumGO:000578325Golgi apparatusGO:000579414Mitochondrial Outer MembraneGO:000574112Mitochondrial Inner MembraneGO:000574320Endoplasmic Reticulum LumenGO:000578821SynapseGO:004520231Periplasmic SpaceGO:000562036MembraneGO:001602053Endoplasmic Reticulum BodyGO:001016834Plant-Type VacuoleGO:000032540PeriplasmGO:004259737Basolateral cell membraneGO:00163231LiverBTO:00007597298Blood VesselBTO:000110274112Endothelium BTO:000039328StomachBTO:00013071552629Pituitary GlandBTO:000107389164Adrenal MedullaBTO:000004971825IntestineBTO:00006487Nervous SystemBTO:000148411HeartBTO:000056273103Sympathetic Nervous SystemBTO:000183218PancreasBTO:00009886KidneyBTO:000067171826LungBTO:000076329111PW_BS0000295181PW_BS00005114101PW_BS0000142111PW_BS0000024311PW_BS0000048511PW_BS00000816212PW_BS00001615111PW_BS000015682512PW_BS0000687028511PW_BS000070117131PW_BS000117103331PW_BS0001031181171PW_BS0001181203171PW_BS0001201321121PW_BS0001321333121PW_BS0001331355171PW_BS00013516611PW_BS0001661985181PW_BS000024226441PW_BS0000242905491PW_BS000024151141PW_BS0001512253541PW_BS0000241115121PW_BS0001111141112PW_BS0001143361121PW_BS00002811PW_BS000001124151PW_BS000124406351PW_BS000115122551PW_BS000122409115PW_BS000115429151PW_BS0001151371117PW_BS0001374641171PW_BS0001152991101PW_BS0000244793101PW_BS0001152975101PW_BS0000244831110PW_BS000115388161PW_BS000112501361PW_BS000115205561PW_BS000024208116PW_BS000024711PW_BS0000071901118PW_BS000024231511PW_BS00002364291PW_BS0000649611PW_BS0000095411PW_BS0000053211PW_BS00000313121PW_BS0000132811611PW_BS000028101711PW_BS000010204111PW_BS000020331811PW_BS000033181311PW_BS000018311511PW_BS00003149711PW_BS000049541315PW_BS000054432511PW_BS0000432441011PW_BS000024221411PW_BS00002260251PW_BS00006046114PW_BS000046171211PW_BS00001772513PW_BS000072612517PW_BS0000613612011PW_BS0000363772113PW_BS00003793252011PW_BS00009327151PW_BS000027971521PW_BS000097100521PW_BS000100943PW_BS000094105113PW_BS0001051136121PW_BS0001131122121PW_BS000112110231PW_BS0001101231751PW_BS0001231251351PW_BS000125126651PW_BS00012612711651PW_BS00012713013121PW_BS00013012915121PW_BS00012910813PW_BS0001086131PW_BS000006140103PW_BS000140101531PW_BS00010114315191PW_BS0001431465191PW_BS000146107313PW_BS000107951721PW_BS0000951471241PW_BS0001471553241PW_BS0001551572241PW_BS0001571613181PW_BS0001611632181PW_BS00016315924PW_BS0001591783211PW_BS0001781802211PW_BS00018015284PW_BS000152188118PW_BS0000241601181PW_BS000160207661PW_BS000024206261PW_BS0000242111018PW_BS0000242137181PW_BS00002421425181PW_BS0000242156181PW_BS0000242164181PW_BS00002421013181PW_BS00002421217181PW_BS000024222341PW_BS000024224241PW_BS00002417018PW_BS00017016212181PW_BS000162261115PW_BS0000262771218PW_BS0000241644PW_BS0001642811251PW_BS0000242851041PW_BS0000242863641PW_BS0000242875341PW_BS0000242491341PW_BS0000242273441PW_BS00002465111PW_BS0000652916491PW_BS0000242924491PW_BS00002429817101PW_BS00002430013101PW_BS0000243016101PW_BS000024302116101PW_BS0000242231241PW_BS0000242941141PW_BS0000243081011PW_BS000024315123PW_BS0000243183123PW_BS0000243221231PW_BS00002429341PW_BS000024253541PW_BS00002413412121PW_BS0001343317121PW_BS00002833217121PW_BS0000283331212PW_BS0000281151012PW_BS0001153344121PW_BS000028337116121PW_BS00002834141121PW_BS00002834318121PW_BS00002834713125PW_BS00002832914121PW_BS0000283522512PW_BS00002835325127PW_BS00002835625121PW_BS000028360410121PW_BS0000283683601PW_BS0000283702601PW_BS000028228361PW_BS0000241192171PW_BS000119383751PW_BS0001003841251PW_BS000100390761PW_BS0001123911261PW_BS0001123987171PW_BS000113232403PW_BS000024407251PW_BS000115408451PW_BS000115412125PW_BS000115405105PW_BS0001154151851PW_BS0001154141551PW_BS0001154251355PW_BS00011512112171PW_BS0001214192551PW_BS00011543441051PW_BS0001153821451PW_BS000100436255PW_BS0001153744171PW_BS0000534436171PW_BS0001154461217PW_BS0001153761017PW_BS00005344717171PW_BS00011513613171PW_BS000136448116171PW_BS00011545118171PW_BS00011545015171PW_BS00011546013175PW_BS00011545525171PW_BS000115469410171PW_BS00011539914171PW_BS0001134712517PW_BS00011547225177PW_BS0001154812101PW_BS0001154824101PW_BS0001154781010PW_BS00011548718101PW_BS00011549025101PW_BS0001154957101PW_BS00011548414101PW_BS00011548012101PW_BS000115502461PW_BS000115209106PW_BS0000245041861PW_BS0001155072561PW_BS00011551541061PW_BS0001153891461PW_BS0001123951361PW_BS0001135131761PW_BS000115711113PW_BS0000717413PW_BS0000741873118PW_BS000024326812PW_BS0000284372557PW_BS00011541685PW_BS000115452817PW_BS000115193513PW_BS0000196618518PW_BS00006630635511PW_BS0000246361PW_BS00006341811PW_BS0000416612617PW_BS0005085311015PW_BS000053229371PW_BS00002440470Angiotensin IHMDB0061196Angiotensin I appears to have no biological activity and exists solely as a precursor to angiotensin 2. Angiotensin I is formed by the action of renin on angiotensinogen. Renin cleaves the peptide bond between the leucine (Leu) and valine (Val) residues on angiotensinogen, creating the ten-amino acid peptide (des-Asp) angiotensin I. Renin is produced in the kidneys in response to renal sympathetic activity, decreased intrarenal blood pressure at the juxtaglomerular cells, or decreased delivery of Na+ and Cl- to the macula densa.[3] If less Na+ is sensed by the macula densa, renin release by juxtaglomerular cells is increased. (Wikipedia)9041-90-1 484-42-4C0087330813722338989CC[C@H](C)[C@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CC1=CC=C(O)C=C1)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CCCN=C(N)N)NC(=O)[C@@H](N)CC(O)=O)C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CN=CN1)C(=O)N1CCC[C@H]1C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CC=CC=C1)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CN=CN1)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(O)=OC62H89N17O14InChI=1S/C62H89N17O14/c1-7-35(6)51(78-56(87)44(25-37-17-19-40(80)20-18-37)74-58(89)50(34(4)5)77-53(84)42(15-11-21-68-62(64)65)71-52(83)41(63)28-49(81)82)59(90)75-46(27-39-30-67-32-70-39)60(91)79-22-12-16-48(79)57(88)73-43(24-36-13-9-8-10-14-36)54(85)72-45(26-38-29-66-31-69-38)55(86)76-47(61(92)93)23-33(2)3/h8-10,13-14,17-20,29-35,41-48,50-51,80H,7,11-12,15-16,21-28,63H2,1-6H3,(H,66,69)(H,67,70)(H,71,83)(H,72,85)(H,73,88)(H,74,89)(H,75,90)(H,76,86)(H,77,84)(H,78,87)(H,81,82)(H,92,93)(H4,64,65,68)/t35-,41-,42-,43-,44-,45-,46-,47-,48-,50-,51-/m0/s1ORWYRWWVDCYOMK-HBZPZAIKSA-N(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-{[(2S)-1-[(2S)-2-[(2S,3S)-2-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-amino-3-carboxypropanamido]-5-[(diaminomethylidene)amino]pentanamido]-3-methylbutanamido]-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)propanamido]-3-methylpentanamido]-3-(1H-imidazol-5-yl)propanoyl]pyrrolidin-2-yl]formamido}-3-phenylpropanamido]-3-(1H-imidazol-5-yl)propanamido]-4-methylpentanoic acid1296.47561295.677490641-4.9516(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-{[(2S)-1-[(2S)-2-[(2S,3S)-2-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-amino-3-carboxypropanamido]-5-[(diaminomethylidene)amino]pentanamido]-3-methylbutanamido]-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)propanamido]-3-methylpentanamido]-3-(3H-imidazol-4-yl)propanoyl]pyrrolidin-2-yl]formamido}-3-phenylpropanamido]-3-(3H-imidazol-4-yl)propanamido]-4-methylpentanoic acid01PW_C040470Angio1295429295551816Angiotensin IIHMDB0001035Angiotensin II is a hormone that may act on the central nervous system to regulate renal sympathetic nerve activity, renal function, and, therefore, blood pressure. Angiotensin II is produced locally within the kidney and mediates tissue injury through a series of nonhemodynamic effects. angiotensin II is not only involved in the regulation of blood pressure, water and sodium homeostasis, and control of other neurohumoral systems, but also leads to excessive production of reactive oxygen species and to hypertrophy, proliferation, migration, and apoptosis of vascular cells. Angiotensin II is one of the main factors involved in hypertension-induced tissue damage. This peptide regulates the inflammatory process. Angiotensin II activates circulating cells, and participates in their adhesion to the activated endothelium and subsequent transmigration through the synthesis of adhesion molecules, chemokines and cytokines. Among the intracellular signals involved in angiotensin II-induced inflammation, the production of reactive oxygen species and the activation of nuclear factor-kappaB are the best known. Classical, well-defined actions of Angiotensin II in the brain include the regulation of hormone formation and release, the control of the central and peripheral sympathoadrenal systems, and the regulation of water and sodium intake. As a consequence of changes in the hormone, sympathetic and electrolyte systems, feedback mechanisms in turn modulate the activity of the brain Angiotensin II systems. There are two Angiotensin II systems in the brain. The discovery of brain Angiotensin II receptors located in neurons inside the blood brain barrier confirmed the existence of an endogenous brain Angiotensin II system, responding to Angiotensin II generated in and/or transported into the brain. In addition, Angiotensin II receptors in circumventricular organs and in cerebrovascular endothelial cells respond to circulating Angiotensin II of peripheral origin. Thus, the brain responds to both circulating and tissue Angiotensin II, and the two systems are integrated. (PMID: 17147923, 16672146, 16601568, 16481883, 16075377).4474-91-3C021351721982719150504CC[C@H](C)[C@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CC1=CC=C(O)C=C1)NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CCCN=C(N)N)NC(=O)[C@@H](N)CC(O)=O)C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CN=CN1)C(=O)N1CCC[C@H]1C(=O)N[C@@H](CC1=CC=CC=C1)C(O)=OC50H71N13O12InChI=1S/C50H71N13O12/c1-5-28(4)41(47(72)59-36(23-31-25-54-26-56-31)48(73)63-20-10-14-38(63)45(70)60-37(49(74)75)22-29-11-7-6-8-12-29)62-44(69)35(21-30-15-17-32(64)18-16-30)58-46(71)40(27(2)3)61-43(68)34(13-9-19-55-50(52)53)57-42(67)33(51)24-39(65)66/h6-8,11-12,15-18,25-28,33-38,40-41,64H,5,9-10,13-14,19-24,51H2,1-4H3,(H,54,56)(H,57,67)(H,58,71)(H,59,72)(H,60,70)(H,61,68)(H,62,69)(H,65,66)(H,74,75)(H4,52,53,55)/t28-,33-,34-,35-,36-,37-,38-,40-,41-/m0/s1CZGUSIXMZVURDU-JZXHSEFVSA-N(3S)-3-amino-3-{[(1S)-1-{[(1S)-1-{[(1S)-1-{[(1S,2S)-1-{[(2S)-1-[(2S)-2-{[(1S)-1-carboxy-2-phenylethyl]carbamoyl}pyrrolidin-1-yl]-3-(1H-imidazol-5-yl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]carbamoyl}-2-methylbutyl]carbamoyl}-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]carbamoyl}-2-methylpropyl]carbamoyl}-4-[(diaminomethylidene)amino]butyl]carbamoyl}propanoic acid1046.17861045.534514801-4.8313(3S)-3-amino-3-{[(1S)-1-{[(1S)-1-{[(1S)-1-{[(1S,2S)-1-{[(2S)-1-[(2S)-2-{[(1S)-1-carboxy-2-phenylethyl]carbamoyl}pyrrolidin-1-yl]-3-(3H-imidazol-4-yl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]carbamoyl}-2-methylbutyl]carbamoyl}-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]carbamoyl}-2-methylpropyl]carbamoyl}-4-[(diaminomethylidene)amino]butyl]carbamoyl}propanoic acid01FDB0223831-8-angiotensin i;1-l-aspasaginyl-5-l-valyl angiotensin octapeptide;Ang ii;Angiotensin 2;Angiotensin ii (human);Angiotensin ii (mouse);Angiotonin;Asp-arg-val-tyr-ile-his-pro-phe;Human angiotensin ii;Hypertensin;Ile(5)-angiotensin ii;5-isoleucine-angiotensin ii;5-l-isoleucineangiotensin ii;Angiotensin;Angiotensin ii;Isoleucine(5)-angiotensin ii;N-(1-(n-(n-(n-(n-(n(2)-l-alpha-aspartyl-l-arginyl)-l-valyl)-l-tyrosyl)-l-isoleucyl)-l-histidyl)-l-prolyl)-l-phenylalanine;N-(1-(n-(n-(n-(n-(n(2)-l-a-aspartyl-l-arginyl)-l-valyl)-l-tyrosyl)-l-isoleucyl)-l-histidyl)-l-prolyl)-l-phenylalanine;N-(1-(n-(n-(n-(n-(n(2)-l-α-aspartyl-l-arginyl)-l-valyl)-l-tyrosyl)-l-isoleucyl)-l-histidyl)-l-prolyl)-l-phenylalaninePW_C000816Ang II2956512961141005Zinc (II) ionHMDB0001303Zinc is an essential element, necessary for sustaining all life.Physiologically, it exists as an ion in the body. It is estimated that 3000 of the hundreds of thousands of proteins in the human body contain zinc prosthetic groups. In addition, there are over a dozen types of cells in the human body that secrete zinc ions, and the roles of these secreted zinc signals in medicine and health are now being actively studied. Intriguingly, brain cells in the mammalian forebrain are one type of cell that secretes zinc, along with its other neuronal messenger substances. Cells in the salivary gland, prostate, immune system and intestine are other types that secrete zinc. Obtaining a sufficient zinc intake during pregnancy and in young children is a problem, especially among those who cannot afford a good and varied diet. Brain development is stunted by zinc deficiency in utero and in youth. Zinc is an activator of certain enzymes, such as carbonic anhydrase. Carbonic anhydrase is important in the transport of carbon dioxide in vertebrate blood. Even though zinc is an essential requirement for a healthy body, too much zinc can be harmful. Excessive absorption of zinc can also suppress copper and iron absorption. The free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to plants, invertebrates, and even vertebrate fish. The Free Ion Activity Model (FIAM) is well-established in the literature, and shows that just micromolar amounts of the free ion kills some organisms.23713-49-7C000383205129105ZN%2b229723DB01593[Zn++]ZnInChI=1S/Zn/q+2PTFCDOFLOPIGGS-UHFFFAOYSA-Nzinc(2+) ion65.40963.9291465780zinc(2+) ion22FDB003729Zinc;Zinc ion;Dietary zinc;Zinc cation;Zinc, ion (zn2+);Zn(ii);Zn(2+);Zn2+PW_C001005Zinc13238411882711652915295751304468312029314770541011754251035434118545912055601325585133559813574491661178719812466226127242901332115176967225774011117758011477929336804001120020124120035406120060122120441409121257429123075137123827464125398299125413479125438297125685483126938388126953501126976205127180208374Chloride ionHMDB0000492Under standard conditions, chlorine exists as a diatomic molecule. Chlorine is a highly toxic, pale yellow-green gas that has a specific strong smell. In nature, chlorine is most abundant as a chloride ion. Physiologically, this it. exists as an ion in the body. The chloride ion is an essential anion that the body needs for many critical functions. It also helps keep the body's acid-base balance. The amount of chloride in the blood is carefully controlled by the kidneys. Chloride ions have important physiological roles. For instance, in the central nervous system, the inhibitory action of glycine and some of the action of GABA relies on the entry of Cl- into specific neurons. Also, the chloride-bicarbonate exchanger biological transport protein relies on the chloride ion to increase the blood's capacity of carbon dioxide, in the form of the bicarbonate ion. Chloride-transporting proteins (CLC) play fundamental roles in many tissues in the plasma membrane as well as in intracellular membranes. CLC proteins form a gene family that comprises nine members in mammals, at least four of which are involved in human genetic diseases. GABA(A) receptors are pentameric complexes that function as ligand-gated chloride ion channels. WNK kinases are a family of serine-threonine kinases that have been shown to play an essential role in the regulation of electrolyte homeostasis, and they are found in diverse epithelia throughout the body that are involved in chloride ion flux. Cystic fibrosis (CF) is caused by alterations in the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTCR) gene that result in deranged sodium and chloride ion transport channels. (PMID: 17539703, 17729441, 17562499, 15300163) (For a complete review see Evans, Richard B. Chlorine: state of the art. Lung (2005), 183(3), 151-167. PMID: 16078037).16887-00-6C0069831217996CPD-4521306[Cl-]ClInChI=1S/ClH/h1H/p-1VEXZGXHMUGYJMC-UHFFFAOYSA-Mchloride35.45334.9688527070chloride-1-1FDB006557Bertholite;Chloor;Chlor;Chlore;Chloride;Chloride ion;Chlorine;Chlorine gas;Cl;Cl2;Diatomic chlorine;Dichlorine;Molecular chlorine;Chloride(1-);Chlorine anion;Cl(-)PW_C000374Cl20911520922295851314983316293437772821907890911412237140912492513726AldosteroneHMDB0000037Aldosterone is a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex in the adrenal gland to regulate sodium and potassium balance in the blood. Specifically it regulates electrolyte and water balance by increasing the renal retention of sodium and the excretion of potassium. It is synthesized from cholesterol by aldosterone synthase, which is absent in other sections of the adrenal gland. It is the sole endogenous member of the class of mineralocorticoids. Aldosterone increases the permeability of the apical (luminal) membrane of the kidney's collecting ducts to potassium and sodium and activates their basolateral Na+/K+ pumps, stimulating ATP hydrolysis, reabsorbing sodium (Na+) ions and water into the blood, and excreting potassium (K+) ions into the urine.52-39-1C017802475842527584ALDOSTERONE24774738C[C@]12CCC(=O)C=C1CCC1C3CC[C@H](C(=O)CO)[C@]3(C[C@H](O)C21)C=OC21H28O5InChI=1S/C21H28O5/c1-20-7-6-13(24)8-12(20)2-3-14-15-4-5-16(18(26)10-22)21(15,11-23)9-17(25)19(14)20/h8,11,14-17,19,22,25H,2-7,9-10H2,1H3/t14?,15?,16-,17+,19?,20+,21-/m1/s1PQSUYGKTWSAVDQ-SRPWZAMTSA-N(2R,14S,15R,17S)-17-hydroxy-14-(2-hydroxyacetyl)-2-methyl-5-oxotetracyclo[8.7.0.0^{2,7}.0^{11,15}]heptadec-6-ene-15-carbaldehyde360.444360.193674006-3.392(2R,14S,15R,17S)-17-hydroxy-14-(2-hydroxyacetyl)-2-methyl-5-oxotetracyclo[8.7.0.0^{2,7}.0^{11,15}]heptadec-6-ene-15-carbaldehyde00FDB021883(+)-aldosterone;(11b)-11,21-dihydroxy-3,20-dioxo-pregn-4-en-18-al;(11beta)-11,21-dihydroxy-3,20-dioxo-pregn-4-en-18-al;11,21-dihydroxy-3,20-dioxopregn-4-en-18-al;11-hydroxy-17-(2-hydroxyacetyl)-10-methyl-3-oxo-1,2,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17-tetradecahydrocyclopenta[a]phenanthrene-13-carbaldehyde;11b,21-dihydroxy-3,20-dioxo-pregn-4-en-18-al;11beta,21-dihydroxy-3,20-diketo-4-pregnen-18-al;11beta,21-dihydroxy-3,20-diketopregn-4-ene-18-al;11beta,21-dihydroxy-3,20-dioxo-pregn-4-en-18-al;11beta,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,18,20-trione;18-formyl-11beta,21-dihydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione;18-oxocorticosterone;Aldocorten;Aldocortene;Aldocortin;Aldosterone;Aldosteronum;D-aldosterone;Electrocortin;Elektrocortin;Reichstein x;Delta-aldosteronePW_C000026Aldostr2174826542329627789611111218001221243521351326VasopressinHMDB0001980Antidiuretic hormone, also known commonly as vasopressin, is a nine amino acid peptide secreted from the posterior pituitary. Within hypothalamic neurons, the hormone is packaged in secretory vesicles with a carrier protein called neurophysin, and both are released upon hormone secretion.11000-17-2C0084053477739D-HeptosesNCCCCC(NC(=O)[C@@H]1CCCN1C(=O)[C@@H]1CSSC[C@H](N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC2=CC=C(O)C=C2)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC2=CC=CC=C2)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(N)=O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(N)=O)C(=O)N1)C(=O)NCC(N)=OC46H65N13O12S2InChI=1S/C46H65N13O12S2/c47-17-5-4-9-29(40(65)52-22-38(51)63)54-45(70)35-10-6-18-59(35)46(71)34-24-73-72-23-28(48)39(64)55-31(20-26-11-13-27(60)14-12-26)43(68)56-32(19-25-7-2-1-3-8-25)42(67)53-30(15-16-36(49)61)41(66)57-33(21-37(50)62)44(69)58-34/h1-3,7-8,11-14,28-35,60H,4-6,9-10,15-24,47-48H2,(H2,49,61)(H2,50,62)(H2,51,63)(H,52,65)(H,53,67)(H,54,70)(H,55,64)(H,56,68)(H,57,66)(H,58,69)/t28-,29?,30-,31-,32-,33-,34-,35-/m0/s1BJFIDCADFRDPIO-ZCCHBGLBSA-N6-amino-2-{[(2S)-1-[(4R,7S,10S,13S,16S,19R)-19-amino-13-benzyl-10-(2-carbamoylethyl)-7-(carbamoylmethyl)-16-[(4-hydroxyphenyl)methyl]-6,9,12,15,18-pentaoxo-1,2-dithia-5,8,11,14,17-pentaazacycloicosane-4-carbonyl]pyrrolidin-2-yl]formamido}-N-(carbamoylmethyl)hexanamide1056.2181055.431705989-4.33136-amino-2-{[(2S)-1-[(4R,7S,10S,13S,16S,19R)-19-amino-13-benzyl-10-(2-carbamoylethyl)-7-(carbamoylmethyl)-16-[(4-hydroxyphenyl)methyl]-6,9,12,15,18-pentaoxo-1,2-dithia-5,8,11,14,17-pentaazacycloicosane-4-carbonyl]pyrrolidin-2-yl]formamido}-N-(carbamoylmethyl)hexanamide02FDB0227783-(phenylalanine)-8-lysine oxytocin;8-l-lysine vasopressin;Adh;Antidiuretic hormone;Diapid;Pitressin;Pitressin tannate;PressynPW_C001326ADH2964642965514142151420WaterHMDB0002111Water is a chemical substance that is essential to all known forms of life. It appears colorless to the naked eye in small quantities, though it is actually slightly blue in color. It covers 71% of Earth's surface. Current estimates suggest that there are 1.4 billion cubic kilometers (330 million m3) of it available on Earth, and it exists in many forms. It appears mostly in the oceans (saltwater) and polar ice caps, but it is also present as clouds, rain water, rivers, freshwater aquifers, lakes, and sea ice. Water in these bodies perpetually moves through a cycle of evaporation, precipitation, and runoff to the sea. Clean water is essential to human life. In many parts of the world, it is in short supply. From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for the proliferation of life that set it apart from other substances. It carries out this role by allowing organic compounds to react in ways that ultimately allow replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water is vital both as a solvent in which many of the body's solutes dissolve and as an essential part of many metabolic processes within the body. Metabolism is the sum total of anabolism and catabolism. In anabolism, water is removed from molecules (through energy requiring enzymatic chemical reactions) in order to grow larger molecules (e.g. starches, triglycerides and proteins for storage of fuels and information). In catabolism, water is used to break bonds in order to generate smaller molecules (e.g. glucose, fatty acids and amino acids to be used for fuels for energy use or other purposes). Water is thus essential and central to these metabolic processes. Water is also central to photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells use the sun's energy to split off water's hydrogen from oxygen. Hydrogen is combined with CO2 (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen. All living cells use such fuels and oxidize the hydrogen and carbon to capture the sun's energy and reform water and CO2 in the process (cellular respiration). Water is also central to acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. An acid, a hydrogen ion (H+, that is, a proton) donor, can be neutralized by a base, a proton acceptor such as hydroxide ion (OH-) to form water. Water is considered to be neutral, with a pH (the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration) of 7. Acids have pH values less than 7 while bases have values greater than 7. Stomach acid (HCl) is useful to digestion. However, its corrosive effect on the esophagus during reflux can temporarily be neutralized by ingestion of a base such as aluminum hydroxide to produce the neutral molecules water and the salt aluminum chloride. Human biochemistry that involves enzymes usually performs optimally around a biologically neutral pH of 7.4. (Wikipedia).7732-18-5C0000196215377937OH2OInChI=1S/H2O/h1H2XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-Nwater18.015318.0105646861water00FDB013390Dihydrogen oxide;Steam;[oh2];Acqua;Agua;Aqua;Bound water;Dihydridooxygen;Eau;H2o;Hoh;Hydrogen hydroxide;WasserPW_C001420H2O5589491095139415131621448113526156242865210691207703382318838210943113774914655415904320182425322226786027274627781728052931437031647236346145983647273749419350302751567519597521410052279452361035297105531911153431135355112540211054701235483125549212655071275534130553711455411295591135560811856221085691657591405778101584114358531465877107589095591014759401516032155605915760871616123163613315962151621816664771786507180660015267131176840188688816071622057181207719320672112117228213723821472432157295198735021673882107401212746722274922247500190758817082012258237226841416292652611850277119221641201128112213285122502861226428712327249125202271263265126932901270529112715292130072981301930013025301130373021326122313327294153403084232731542695318436913227691429377019253771021327713113377215134773783317739733277471333775161157753633477628336777223377775934177816343779823477807132978235352782423537827035679113360800143688003937080591228806561199383038394794384110557390110639391115844398119879232119915122119963406120008407120046408120113124120365412120430405120438409120606415120794414121158425121240429121351121121381419121607434122118382122384436122753120122797374122804443123012446123064376123072137123131447123142136123162448123231451123384450123730460123810464123940455124165469124670399124938471124945472125305297125353479125386481125424482125480299125682483125707478125745487126054490126238495126273484126764480126896501126963502127017388127177208127199209127227504127506507127576515127836389128082395128176513458SodiumHMDB0000588Sodium ions are necessary for regulation of blood and body fluids, transmission of nerve impulses, heart activity, and certain metabolic functions. Physiologically, it exists as an ion in the body. Sodium is needed by animals, which maintain high concentrations in their blood and extracellular fluids, but the ion is not needed by plants. The human requirement for sodium in the diet is less than 500 mg per day, which is typically less than a tenth as much as many diets "seasoned to taste." Most people consume far more sodium than is physiologically needed. For certain people with salt-sensitive blood pressure, this extra intake may cause a negative effect on health.17341-25-2C0133092329101899[Na+]NaInChI=1S/Na/q+1FKNQFGJONOIPTF-UHFFFAOYSA-Nsodium(1+) ion22.989822.9897696750sodium(1+) ion11FDB003523Sodium;Sodium ion;Na(+);Na+PW_C000458Na+209315209422724602725613157713158723185743615514607858601055861107586210871491877150188423373184233831578239353782433267824935279047132122389436122390437122635416122636124124942472124946452124960471125209118457PotassiumHMDB0000586Potassium is an essential electrolyte. Potassium balance is crucial for regulating the excitability of nerves and muscles and so critical for regulating contractility of cardiac muscle. Although the most important changes seen in the presence of deranged potassium are cardiac, smooth muscle is also affected with increasing muscle weakness, a feature of both hyperkalaemia and hypokalaemia. Physiologically, it exists as an ion in the body. Potassium (K+) is a positively charged electrolyte, cation, which is present throughout the body in both intracellular and extracellular fluids. The majority of body potassium, >90%, are intracellular. It moves freely from intracellular fluid (ICF) to extracellular fluid (ECF) and vice versa when adenosine triphosphate increases the permeability of the cell membrane. It is mainly replaced inside or outside the cells by another cation, sodium (Na+). The movement of potassium into or out of the cells is linked to certain body hormones and also to certain physiological states. Standard laboratory tests measure ECF potassium. Potassium enters the body rapidly during food ingestion. Insulin is produced when a meal is eaten; this causes the temporary movement of potassium from ECF to ICF. Over the ensuing hours, the kidneys excrete the ingested potassium and homeostasis is returned. In the critically ill patient, suffering from hyperkalaemia, this mechanism can be manipulated beneficially by administering high concentration (50%) intravenous glucose. Insulin can be added to the glucose, but glucose alone will stimulate insulin production and cause movement of potassium from ECF to ICF. The stimulation of alpha receptors causes increased movement of potassium from ICF to ECF. A noradrenaline infusion can elevate serum potassium levels. An adrenaline infusion, or elevated adrenaline levels, can lower serum potassium levels. Metabolic acidosis causes a rise in extracellular potassium levels. In this situation, excess of hydrogen ions (H+) are exchanged for intracellular potassium ions, probably as a result of the cellular response to a falling blood pH. Metabolic alkalosis causes the opposite effect, with potassium moving into the cells. (PMID: 17883675).24203-36-9C0023881329103K%2b791DB01345[K+]KInChI=1S/K/q+1NPYPAHLBTDXSSS-UHFFFAOYSA-Npotassium(1+) ion39.098338.9637068610potassium(1+) ion11FDB003521K+;Kalium;Potassium;Potassium (k+);Potassium (ion);Potassium cation;Potassium ion;Potassium ion (k+);Potassium ion (k1+);Potassium ion(+);Potassium ion(1+);Potassium monocation;Potassium(+);Potassium(1+);Potassium(1+) ion;Potassium(i) cation;K(+)PW_C000457K+57389311919262209515303366316172316271361351361461592114759521516902160118101981522230677023225771151327761011178241326782463531204841221211981241231051351237681181249444521249494721258602971259652991273222051274213881051HydrogenHMDB0001362Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, highly flammable diatomic gas with the molecular formula H2. With an atomic weight of 1.00794, hydrogen is the lightest element. Besides the common H1 isotope, hydrogen exists as the stable isotope Deuterium and the unstable, radioactive isotope Tritium. Hydrogen is the most abundant of the chemical elements, constituting roughly 75% of the universe's elemental mass. Hydrogen can form compounds with most elements and is present in water and most organic compounds. It plays a particularly important role in acid-base chemistry, in which many reactions involve the exchange of protons between soluble molecules. Oxidation of hydrogen, in the sense of removing its electron, formally gives H+, containing no electrons and a nucleus which is usually composed of one proton. That is why H+ is often called a proton. This species is central to discussion of acids. Under the Bronsted-Lowry theory, acids are proton donors, while bases are proton acceptors. A bare proton H+ cannot exist in solution because of its strong tendency to attach itself to atoms or molecules with electrons. However, the term 'proton' is used loosely to refer to positively charged or cationic hydrogen, denoted H+. H2 is a product of some types of anaerobic metabolism and is produced by several microorganisms, usually via reactions catalyzed by iron- or nickel-containing enzymes called hydrogenases. These enzymes catalyze the reversible redox reaction between H2 and its component two protons and two electrons. Creation of hydrogen gas occurs in the transfer of reducing equivalents produced during pyruvate fermentation to water.1333-74-0C002825883867318276ALPHA-GLUCOSE-16-BISPHOSPHATE762[H][H]H2InChI=1S/H2/h1HUFHFLCQGNIYNRP-UHFFFAOYSA-N2.01592.015650064000FDB016247Dihydrogen;Hydrogen;Hydrogen cation;Hydrogen gas;Hydrogen ion;Hydronium;Proton;E 949;E-949;E949;H2;Molecular hydrogenPW_C001051H2175682388226963314670495210703316370451601277415113270225785941127860313278772111113163941214481221220324071220371241240061351245861191245911181260732971261824811261882991275292051280053881283232062025ReninP00797Renin is a highly specific endopeptidase, whose only known function is to generate angiotensin I from angiotensinogen in the plasma, initiating a cascade of reactions that produce an elevation of blood pressure and increased sodium retention by the kidneyHMDBP02624REN1q32M1015213.4.23.15294863294951135582412016AngiotensinogenP01019Angiotensin 1-7 is a ligand for the G-protein coupled receptor MAS1. Has vasodilator and antidiuretic effects. Has an antithrombotic effect that involves MAS1-mediated release of nitric oxide from plateletsHMDBP02609AGT1q42-q43S7853012952292953511560Angiotensin-converting enzymeP12821Converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II by release of the terminal His-Leu, this results in an increase of the vasoconstrictor activity of angiotensin. Also able to inactivate bradykinin, a potent vasodilator. Has also a glycosidase activity which releases GPI-anchored proteins from the membrane by cleaving the mannose linkage in the GPI moietyHMDBP01710ACE17q23.3EU33284013.2.1.-; 3.4.15.12910152959513317291361616611365481410207UnknownUnknown12.3.1.85; 2.3.1.38; 2.3.1.39; 2.3.1.41; 1.1.1.100; 4.2.1.59; 1.3.1.39; 3.1.2.14; 3.5.99.5; 1.1.1.-6404106429316434539166179170491822211678311685212124812129141213322913597351136178722586ReninP00797
Renin is a highly specific endopeptidase, whose only known function is to generate angiotensin I from angiotensinogen in the plasma, initiating a cascade of reactions that produce an elevation of blood pressure and increased sodium retention by the kidney.
REN13.4.23.15734Renin1PW_P00073482820251294763735Angiotensinogen1PW_P00073582920161295029295151725Angiotensin-converting 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83false27976013571606322365459353660120Left322365559363660121Right7532581348218979763235717942851322378259353660275Right1864221873660276Left186438031983660277Right753289169328218678153103283577398037993664291Left7408038003664294Right781551363577438038023664297Left7448038033664298Right781561353577458038043664299Left74621863664300Right78157103283577478038053664303Left74821893664304Right7816013635775321873664309Left7548038083664310Right3047267914130482679142305326794023059267953430602679535306126795363063267953830642679539306526796293066267963068368366009368374366027968375366028068376366028168379366028568380366028668381366028768382366042968383366043068385366043268386366043368387366043468388366043568402366097768403366118268404366118368408366118868409366118968410366119068411366119168412366119268413366119368416366119968417366134668418366134768419366134868420366134968421366135068423366135268424366135368618366538268619366538368620366545468621366545541519484114152948412340728197602.22.20792001453417413195400.80.8-360195516206342719392350.60.60482924001864481001781.31.3033851065218645419525761.61.601210176216186466281112670.60.6078292400186496119612701.01.00996220271186497230612651.01.00298220271186509169914430.20.202100861633186510171412680.20.20299861647186512107919810.60.60222457825186513269717230.60.60122457825186524101016950.60.602829240045038215From liver1314274201.01.01601545038315From kidney1745212201.01.01601545038415Into circulation2768270201.01.01601545038515From capillaries of lungs and endothelial cells of kidney2299182201.01.01601545041315Hypothalmus21861279201.31.31601545041415Posterior Pituitary Gland13171457201.31.31601545041515 Angiotensin II binds directly to AT1 receptors on the smooth muscle cells of the tunica media layer to induce vasoconstriction of the blood vessel18761363201.31.31601545041615Adrenal Cortex27001248201.31.31601545041815Vasopressin is released from the posterior pituitary gland where it changes the permeability of the collecting ducts to allow for water reabsorption back into the blood circulation13691547201.31.31601545041915Water reabsorption into blood circulation13942386201.31.31601545042015Increase in blood pressure15622068202.82.81601545042115Increase in circulating blood volume21662073202.52.51601545042215Triggers thirst sensation22941580201.61.61601545042315Increase in oral water uptake21241730201.61.61601545042515Reabsorption of Na+ into the blood stream subsequently causes water to follow, thus water retention occurs25982275201.61.61601545043715Potassium and hydrogen ions are simultaneously excreted into the urine26492388201.61.61601545065115Angiotensin binds to receptors in the adrenal cortex to trigger a series of reactions that leads to the synthesis of aldosterone from cholesterol26511517201.31.316015144149054613061312954482412016483511804172831143226991724297022174727149318041810861877107919831353247544274492