75PathwayGlucose-Alanine CycleThe glucose-alanine cycle—also referred to in the literature as the Cahill cycle or the alanine cycle—involves muscle protein being degraded to provide more glucose to generate additional ATP for muscle contraction. It allows pyruvate and glutamate to be transported out of muscle tissue to the liver where gluconeogenesis takes place to supply the muscle tissue with more glucose as mentioned previously.
To initiate the cycle, muscle and tissues that catabolize amino acids for fuel generate amino groups—most commonly in the form of glutamate—through the process of transamination. These amino groups are transferred via alanine aminotransferase to pyruvate (a product of glycolysis) to form alanine and alpha-ketoglutarate.
Alanine subsequently moves through the circulatory system to the liver where the reaction previously catalyzed by alanine aminotransferase is reversed to produce pyruvate. This pyruvate is converted into glucose through the process of gluconeogenesis which subsequently is transported back to the muscle tissue. Meanwhile, glutamate dehydrogenase in the mitochondria catabolizes glutamate into ammonium. Ammonium moves on to form urea in the urea cycle.MetabolicPW000046CenterPathwayVisualizationContext4638001950#000099PathwayVisualization5675Glucose-Alanine CycleThe glucose-alanine cycle—also referred to in the literature as the Cahill cycle or the alanine cycle—involves muscle protein being degraded to provide more glucose to generate additional ATP for muscle contraction. It allows pyruvate and glutamate to be transported out of muscle tissue to the liver where gluconeogenesis takes place to supply the muscle tissue with more glucose as mentioned previously.
To initiate the cycle, muscle and tissues that catabolize amino acids for fuel generate amino groups—most commonly in the form of glutamate—through the process of transamination. These amino groups are transferred via alanine aminotransferase to pyruvate (a product of glycolysis) to form alanine and alpha-ketoglutarate.
Alanine subsequently moves through the circulatory system to the liver where the reaction previously catalyzed by alanine aminotransferase is reversed to produce pyruvate. This pyruvate is converted into glucose through the process of gluconeogenesis which subsequently is transported back to the muscle tissue. Meanwhile, glutamate dehydrogenase in the mitochondria catabolizes glutamate into ammonium. Ammonium moves on to form urea in the urea cycle.Metabolic17076SubPathway13777Compound50138164Compound50714SubPathway139164Compound507277SubPathway140164Compound2614177Compound267378SubPathway14235Compound2674Protein DegradationSubPathway14395Compound50318Lehninger, A.L. Lehninger principles of biochemistry (4th ed.) (2005). New York: W.H Freeman.75Pathway319Salway, J.G. Metabolism at a glance (3rd ed.) (2004). Alden, Mass.: Blackwell Pub.75Pathway2796334567003Felig P: The glucose-alanine cycle. Metabolism. 1973 Feb;22(2):179-207.75Pathway1CellCL:00000006MyocyteCL:00001875HepatocyteCL:00001823NeuronCL:000054012AstrocyteCL:00001277Epithelial CellCL:00000668Beta cellCL:000063910Glial cellCL:00001254CardiomyocyteCL:00007461Homo sapiens9606EukaryoteHuman3Escherichia coli562Prokaryote17Rattus norvegicus10116EukaryoteRat12Mus musculus10090EukaryoteMouse4Arabidopsis thaliana3702EukaryoteThale cress23Pseudomonas aeruginosa287Prokaryote5Bos taurus9913EukaryoteCattle10Drosophila melanogaster7227EukaryoteFruit fly6Caenorhabditis elegans6239EukaryoteRoundworm24Solanum lycopersicum4081EukaryoteTomato18Saccharomyces cerevisiae4932EukaryoteYeast21Xenopus laevis8355EukaryoteAfrican clawed frog49Bathymodiolus platifrons220390EukaryoteDeep sea mussel60Nitzschia sp.0001EukaryoteNitzschia42Bacteria2ProkaryoteBacteria25Escherichia coli (strain K12)83333Prokaryote202Spathaspora passalidarum340170EukaryoteSpathaspora passalidarum19Schizosaccharomyces pombe4896Eukaryote1CytosolGO:00058293Mitochondrial MatrixGO:00057595CytoplasmGO:000573711Extracellular SpaceGO:00056152MitochondrionGO:000573931Periplasmic SpaceGO:000562010Cell MembraneGO:000588635ChloroplastGO:000950713Endoplasmic ReticulumGO:000578324Mitochondrial Intermembrane SpaceGO:00057584PeroxisomeGO:00057776LysosomeGO:00057647Endoplasmic Reticulum MembraneGO:000578912Mitochondrial Inner MembraneGO:000574325Golgi ApparatusGO:000579414Mitochondrial Outer MembraneGO:000574136MembraneGO:001602053Endoplasmic Reticulum BodyGO:001016834Plant-Type VacuoleGO:000032532Inner MembraneGO:007025816Lysosomal LumenGO:004320218Melanosome MembraneGO:003316220Endoplasmic Reticulum LumenGO:000578821SynapseGO:004520215NucleusGO:000563440PeriplasmGO:00425979MuscleBTO:0000887141188Blood VesselBTO:000110274111LiverBTO:000075972924BrainBTO:000014289163Sympathetic Nervous SystemBTO:00018324Adrenal MedullaBTO:000004971825IntestineBTO:000064818PancreasBTO:00009887Nervous 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is a non-essential amino acid made in the body from either the conversion of the carbohydrate pyruvate or the breakdown of DNA and the dipeptides carnosine and anserine. It is highly concentrated in muscle and is one of the most important amino acids released by muscle, functioning as a major energy source. Plasma alanine is often decreased when the BCAA (branched-chain amino acids) are deficient. This finding may relate to muscle metabolism. Alanine is highly concentrated in meat products and other high-protein foods like wheat germ and cottage cheese. Alanine is an important participant as well as a regulator of glucose metabolism. Alanine levels parallel blood sugar levels in both diabetes and hypoglycemia, and alanine reduces both severe hypoglycemia and the ketosis of diabetes. It is an important amino acid for lymphocyte reproduction and immunity. Alanine therapy has helped dissolve kidney stones in experimental animals. Normal alanine metabolism, like that of other amino acids, is highly dependent upon enzymes that contain vitamin B6. Alanine, like GABA, taurine, and glycine, is an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain (http://www.dcnutrition.com/AminoAcids/). L-Alanine has been found to be associated with glucagon deficiency, which is an inborn error of metabolism.56-41-7C00041595016977L-ALPHA-ALANINE5735DB00160C[C@H](N)C(O)=OC3H7NO2InChI=1S/C3H7NO2/c1-2(4)3(5)6/h2H,4H2,1H3,(H,5,6)/t2-/m0/s1QNAYBMKLOCPYGJ-REOHCLBHSA-N(2S)-2-aminopropanoic acid89.093289.0476784730.702L-alanine00FDB000556(2s)-2-aminopropanoate;(2s)-2-aminopropanoic acid;(s)-(+)-alanine;(s)-2-aminopropanoate;(s)-2-aminopropanoic acid;(s)-2-amino-propanoate;(s)-2-amino-propanoic acid;(s)-alanine;2-aminopropanoate;2-aminopropanoic acid;2-aminopropionate;2-aminopropionic acid;2-ammoniopropanoate;2-ammoniopropanoic acid;Ala;Alanine;L-(+)-alanine;L-2-aminopropanoate;L-2-aminopropanoic acid;L-2-aminopropionate;L-2-aminopropionic acid;L-a-alanine;L-a-aminopropionate;L-a-aminopropionic acid;L-alpha-alanine;L-alpha-aminopropionate;L-alpha-aminopropionic acid;A-alanine;A-aminopropionate;A-aminopropionic acid;Alpha-alanine;Alpha-aminopropanoate;Alpha-aminopropanoic acid;Alpha-aminopropionate;Alpha-aminopropionic acid;A;L-alanin;L-α-alaninePW_C000105Ala102294316814465014535114542630221534393540711754181035431118545212055571325578133563710756381085883105652985835022512271151126203112627181523022242452320424533184253431577969346779753277798832678008111780921127916511480693135119910122120015124120026406121145423121151424121164416121220409122139407123717458123723459123736452123790137124691119125300297125393299125404479126296481126850205126933388126944501127860206134Oxoglutaric acidHMDB0000208Oxoglutaric acid, also known as alpha-ketoglutarate, alpha-ketoglutaric acid, AKG, or 2-oxoglutaric acid, is classified as a gamma-keto acid or a gamma-keto acid derivative. gamma-Keto acids are organic compounds containing an aldehyde substituted with a keto group on the C4 carbon atom. alpha-Ketoglutarate is considered to be soluble (in water) and acidic. alpha-Ketoglutarate is a key molecule in the TCA cycle, playing a fundamental role in determining the overall rate of this important metabolic process (PMID: 26759695). In the TCA cycle, AKG is decarboxylated to succinyl-CoA and carbon dioxide by AKG dehydrogenase, which functions as a key control point of the TCA cycle. Additionally, AKG can be generated from isocitrate by oxidative decarboxylation catalyzed by the enzyme known as isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH). In addition to these routes of production, AKG can be produced from glutamate by oxidative deamination via glutamate dehydrogenase, and as a product of pyridoxal phosphate-dependent transamination reactions (mediated by branched-chain amino acid transaminases) in which glutamate is a common amino donor. AKG is a nitrogen scavenger and a source of glutamate and glutamine that stimulates protein synthesis and inhibits protein degradation in muscles. In particular, AKG can decrease protein catabolism and increase protein synthesis to enhance bone tissue formation in skeletal muscles (PMID: 26759695). Interestingly, enteric feeding of AKG supplements can significantly increase circulating plasma levels of hormones such as insulin, growth hormone, and insulin-like growth factor-1 (PMID: 26759695). It has recently been shown that AKG can extend the lifespan of adult C. elegans by inhibiting ATP synthase and TOR (PMID: 24828042). In combination with molecular oxygen, alpha-ketoglutarate is required for the hydroxylation of proline to hydroxyproline in the production of type I collagen. A recent study has shown that alpha-ketoglutarate promotes TH1 differentiation along with the depletion of glutamine thereby favouring Treg (regulatory T-cell) differentiation (PMID: 26420908). alpha-Ketoglutarate has been found to be associated with fumarase deficiency, 2-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex deficiency, and D-2-hydroxyglutaric aciduria, which are all inborn errors of metabolism (PMID: 8338207).328-50-7C0002651309152-KETOGLUTARATE50DB02926OC(=O)CCC(=O)C(O)=OC5H6O5InChI=1S/C5H6O5/c6-3(5(9)10)1-2-4(7)8/h1-2H2,(H,7,8)(H,9,10)KPGXRSRHYNQIFN-UHFFFAOYSA-N2-oxopentanedioic acid146.0981146.021523302-0.442oxoglutarate0-2FDB0033612-ketoglutarate;2-ketoglutaric acid;2-oxo-1,5-pentanedioate;2-oxo-1,5-pentanedioic acid;2-oxoglutarate;2-oxoglutaric acid;2-oxopentanedioate;2-oxopentanedioic acid;Oxoglutarate;Alpha-ketoglutaric acid;Oxoglutaric acid;A-ketoglutarate;A-ketoglutaric acid;Alpha-ketoglutarate;α-ketoglutarate;α-ketoglutaric acidPW_C000134AKG152423141414684991867331110842126351447501455261467545375103541411754381185564132600814760361556069157609216164821786530857471222751522475191518209225837422011863198126812897705425377135133774811117752311277746129779673457797034677976327779843477842533480018368806941351131629411997240612002212412008440712017412212055241412081441812098940812114642312115242412116042512275712012283111912318645012339945412355437412371845812372445912373246012535747912540029912545548112553329712580048912592948212690050112694038812699320612706620512725550612738850295L-Glutamic acidHMDB0000148Glutamic acid (Glu), also referred to as glutamate (the anion), is one of the 20 proteinogenic amino acids. It is not among the essential amino acids. Glutamate is a key molecule in cellular metabolism. In humans, dietary proteins are broken down by digestion into amino acids, which serves as metabolic fuel or other functional roles in the body. Glutamate is the most abundant fast excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian nervous system. At chemical synapses, glutamate is stored in vesicles. Nerve impulses trigger release of glutamate from the pre-synaptic cell. In the opposing post-synaptic cell, glutamate receptors, such as the NMDA receptor, bind glutamate and are activated. Because of its role in synaptic plasticity, it is believed that glutamic acid is involved in cognitive functions like learning and memory in the brain. Glutamate transporters are found in neuronal and glial membranes. They rapidly remove glutamate from the extracellular space. In brain injury or disease, they can work in reverse and excess glutamate can accumulate outside cells. This process causes calcium ions to enter cells via NMDA receptor channels, leading to neuronal damage and eventual cell death, and is called excitotoxicity. The mechanisms of cell death include: * Damage to mitochondria from excessively high intracellular Ca2+. * Glu/Ca2+-mediated promotion of transcription factors for pro-apoptotic genes, or downregulation of transcription factors for anti-apoptotic genes. Excitotoxicity due to glutamate occurs as part of the ischemic cascade and is associated with stroke and diseases like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, lathyrism, and Alzheimer's disease. glutamic acid has been implicated in epileptic seizures. Microinjection of glutamic acid into neurons produces spontaneous depolarization around one second apart, and this firing pattern is similar to what is known as paroxysmal depolarizing shift in epileptic attacks. This change in the resting membrane potential at seizure foci could cause spontaneous opening of voltage activated calcium channels, leading to glutamic acid release and further depolarization. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamic_acid).56-86-0C000253303216015GLT30572DB00142N[C@@H](CCC(O)=O)C(O)=OC5H9NO4InChI=1S/C5H9NO4/c6-3(5(9)10)1-2-4(7)8/h3H,1-2,6H2,(H,7,8)(H,9,10)/t3-/m0/s1WHUUTDBJXJRKMK-VKHMYHEASA-N(2S)-2-aminopentanedioic acid147.1293147.053157781-0.263L-glutamic acid0-1FDB012535(2s)-2-aminopentanedioate;(2s)-2-aminopentanedioic acid;(s)-(+)-glutamate;(s)-(+)-glutamic acid;(s)-2-aminopentanedioate;(s)-2-aminopentanedioic acid;(s)-glutamate;(s)-glutamic acid;1-amino-propane-1,3-dicarboxylate;1-amino-propane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid;1-aminopropane-1,3-dicarboxylate;1-aminopropane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid;2-aminoglutarate;2-aminoglutaric acid;2-aminopentanedioate;2-aminopentanedioic acid;Aciglut;Aminoglutarate;Aminoglutaric acid;E;Glt;Glu;Glusate;Glut;Glutacid;Glutamicol;Glutamidex;Glutaminate;Glutaminic acid;Glutaminol;Glutaton;L-(+)-glutamate;L-(+)-glutamic acid;L-glu;L-glutamate;L-glutaminate;L-glutaminic acid;L-a-aminoglutarate;L-a-aminoglutaric acid;L-alpha-aminoglutarate;L-alpha-aminoglutaric acid;A-aminoglutarate;A-aminoglutaric acid;A-glutamate;A-glutamic acid;Alpha-aminoglutarate;Alpha-aminoglutaric acid;Alpha-glutamate;Alpha-glutamic acid;Acide glutamique;Acido glutamico;Acidum glutamicum;Glutamate;Glutamic acid;L-glutaminsaeurePW_C000095Glu1624436581191138416414969911054214485014562614625453231115344113541511754391185565132563110756321085859105600614760711576191946531856838187684418870927270937171652057182207751422475181518208225837322011792198118551611200422212621311268328912697290423483154234931842845320770202537733213377525112779713467797732777981347782913458064913512002312412004012212008640712034740612069212612081641812114742312115342412115742512283311912299712012329944312340145412371945812372545912372946012540129912541829712545748112566747912576930112580248912694138812699520612716250112725750614073884140739597164Pyruvic acidHMDB0000243Pyruvic acid is an intermediate compound in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. In thiamine deficiency, its oxidation is retarded and it accumulates in the tissues, especially in nervous structures. (From Stedman, 26th ed.) Biological Source: Intermediate in primary metabolism including fermentation processes. Present in muscle in redox equilibrium with Lactic acid. A common constituent, as a chiral cyclic acetal linked to saccharide residues, of bacterial polysaccharides. Isolated from cane sugar fermentation broth and peppermint. Constituent of Bauhinia purpurea, Cicer arietinum (chickpea), Delonix regia, Pisum sativum (pea) and Trigonella caerulea (sweet trefoil) Use/Importance: Reagent for regeneration of carbonyl compdounds from semicarbazones, phenylhydrazones and oximes. Flavoring ingredient (Dictionary of Organic Compounds).127-17-3C00022106032816PYRUVATE1031DB00119CC(=O)C(O)=OC3H4O3InChI=1S/C3H4O3/c1-2(4)3(5)6/h1H3,(H,5,6)LCTONWCANYUPML-UHFFFAOYSA-N2-oxopropanoic acid88.062188.0160439940.181pyruvic acid0-1FDB0082932-oxopropanoate;2-oxopropanoic acid;2-oxopropionate;2-oxopropionic acid;Acetylformate;Acetylformic acid;Bts;Pyroracemate;Pyroracemic acid;Pyruvate;A-ketopropionate;A-ketopropionic acid;Alpha-ketopropionate;Alpha-ketopropionic acid;2-ketopropionic acid;2-oxopropansaeure;2-oxopropionsaeure;Acide pyruvique;Alpha-oxopropionsaeure;Brenztraubensaeure;Ch3cocooh;2-ketopropionate;α-ketopropionate;α-ketopropionic acid;A-oxopropionsaeure;α-oxopropionsaeurePW_C000164Pyr1722044228118131449501457265365103540511754401185444120556613255701335893955920147595115160221556067156607416161261606383164671786510177653285745722274952208200225126223115292249153491877310111779723467797832778090112800043688004236780695135112879941156831211199504061200111241201751221208784071211484231211544241234541191237204581237264591253404791253902991255342971258544811268835011269313881270672051278582061148Pyridoxal 5'-phosphateHMDB0001491This is the active form of vitamin B6 serving as a coenzyme for synthesis of amino acids, neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine), sphingolipids, aminolevulinic acid. During transamination of amino acids, pyridoxal phosphate is transiently converted into pyridoxamine phosphate (pyridoxamine). -- Pubchem; Pyridoxal-phosphate (PLP, pyridoxal-5'-phosphate) is a cofactor of many enzymatic reactions. It is the active form of vitamin B6 which comprises three natural organic compounds, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine and pyridoxine. -- Wikipedia.54-47-7C00018105118405PYRIDOXAL_PHOSPHATE1022DB00114CC1=NC=C(COP(O)(O)=O)C(C=O)=C1OC8H10NO6PInChI=1S/C8H10NO6P/c1-5-8(11)7(3-10)6(2-9-5)4-15-16(12,13)14/h2-3,11H,4H2,1H3,(H2,12,13,14)NGVDGCNFYWLIFO-UHFFFAOYSA-N[(4-formyl-5-hydroxy-6-methylpyridin-3-yl)methoxy]phosphonic acid247.1419247.024573569-1.643pyridoxal phosphate0-2FDB021820Apolon b6;Biosechs;Codecarboxylase;Coenzyme b6;Hairoxal;Hexermin-p;Hi-pyridoxin;Hiadelon;Himitan;Pal-p;Plp;Phosphopyridoxal;Phosphopyridoxal coenzyme;Pidopidon;Piodel;Pydoxal;Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate;Pyridoxal 5-phosphate;Pyridoxal p;Pyridoxal phosphate;Pyridoxal-p;Pyridoxyl phosphate;Pyromijin;Sechvitan;Vitahexin-p;Vitazechs;3-hydroxy-2-methyl-5-[(phosphonooxy)methyl]-4-pyridinecarboxaldehyde;3-hydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-methylisonicotinaldehyde 5-phosphate;Phosphoric acid mono-(4-formyl-5-hydroxy-6-methyl-pyridin-3-ylmethyl) ester;Pyridoxal 5-monophosphoric acid ester;Pyridoxal 5'-(dihydrogen phosphate);Pyridoxal-5'-phosphate;Pyridoxal 5'-phosphoric acid;3-hydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-methylisonicotinaldehyde 5-phosphoric acid;Phosphate mono-(4-formyl-5-hydroxy-6-methyl-pyridin-3-ylmethyl) ester;Pyridoxal 5-monophosphate ester;Pyridoxal 5'-(dihydrogen phosphoric acid);Pyridoxal 5-phosphoric acid;Pyridoxal phosphoric acid;Pyridoxal-5'-phosphoric acidPW_C001148Pyr-5'P1823244535181221401196962011104214505014582621201021504953251115416117542110354411185455120556713255811336533857018160716720572162127222213118581611217515112623311262818126842891268929077017253770372257704129377052224775261127776434177973346779793277829234578855332788623318069613598630711991212212002412412002940612008740712081741812114942312115542412206912312207638312283411912340245412372145812372745912462044712462739812530229712540229912540747912545848112580348912622429812623149512694238812694750112699620612725850612778651312779339077D-GlucoseHMDB0000122Glucose is a monosaccharide containing six carbon atoms and an aldehyde group and is therefore referred to as an aldohexose. The glucose molecule can exist in an open-chain (acyclic) and ring (cyclic) form, the latter being the result of an intramolecular reaction between the aldehyde C atom and the C-5 hydroxyl group to form an intramolecular hemiacetal. In water solution both forms are in equilibrium and at pH 7 the cyclic one is the predominant. Glucose is a primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. In animals glucose arises from the breakdown of glycogen in a process known as glycogenolysis. Glucose is synthesized in the liver and kidneys from non-carbohydrate intermediates, such as pyruvate and glycerol, by a process known as gluconeogenesis.2280-44-6C0003157934167GLC5589[H]C1(O)O[C@]([H])(CO)[C@@]([H])(O)[C@]([H])(O)[C@@]1([H])OC6H12O6InChI=1S/C6H12O6/c7-1-2-3(8)4(9)5(10)6(11)12-2/h2-11H,1H2/t2-,3-,4+,5-,6?/m1/s1WQZGKKKJIJFFOK-GASJEMHNSA-N(3R,4S,5S,6R)-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxane-2,3,4,5-tetrol180.1559180.0633881160.645glucose00FDB012530Roferose st;(+)-glucose;Anhydrous dextrose;Cpc hydrate;Cerelose;Cerelose 2001;Clearsweet 95;Clintose l;Corn sugar;D(+)-glucose;Dextropur;Dextrose;Dextrosol;Glucodin;Glucolin;Glucose;Goldsugar;Grape sugar;Meritose;Staleydex 111;Staleydex 95m;Tabfine 097(hs);Vadex;D-glc;D-glcp;D-glucosePW_C000077D-Glc145250146026146151150621540432193924394267960272115272361302766311429359335692658961485922149592315259541536367107636810868691926904193708520072442151176511411766132424403184244131577085326771173277792333677989346782363527824835378262356788811137905611212116642412116741612116942312125142912136112412137341912209812612238543612238843712239940712267640912373845912373945212374145812382146412392011812393245512464944312493947112495947212496911912525113712593748812596749212603429912604649012625430112654048112680948312739750512742350912748638812749850712781720712811320612840820840034Hydrogen IonHMDB0059597Hydrogen ion is recommended by IUPAC as a general term for all ions of hydrogen and its isotopes. Depending on the charge of the ion, two different classes can be distinguished: positively charged ions and negatively charged ions. Under aqueous conditions found in biochemistry, hydrogen ions exist as the hydrated form hydronium, H3O+, but these are often still referred to as hydrogen ions or even protons by biochemists. [WikiPedia])C000801038153781010[H+]HInChI=1S/p+1GPRLSGONYQIRFK-UHFFFAOYSA-Nhydron1.00791.0078250320hydron10H+;H(+);Hydrogen cation;Hydron;ProtonPW_C040034H+215467087531578831848311162146326146454223149278017425022425442454710457618469470524110353271115353112562610856391075699100572010557421175963147603715560701576093161613015962321666483178660115266921016843188691018771001637168205719120674532197454220747222275252137532210755821275721607590170819522582181518243226841316284202249139195915524911915164120152811218128512246286122662871252122713257223133252941533030842329315423543184240132242405312424543207691229377136133772101347737233177804114779551327799032777991347783793457992913080019368803873108038830480722119938231249482338311055038811285594113280390115537398115539118115856336116205109119973406120193407120549122120593409121170424121171425122569418122615384122687125122758120123183135123218137123742459123743460125141454125188121125273136125359479125550481125730483125736297125809299126517495126717489126766480126823300126902501127213208128308506128361391128430395140692882140693883140699167140707168140715141407427881407435971407601851420WaterHMDB0002111Water is a chemical substance that is essential to all known forms of life. It appears colorless to the naked eye in small quantities, though it is actually slightly blue in color. It covers 71% of Earth's surface. Current estimates suggest that there are 1.4 billion cubic kilometers (330 million m3) of it available on Earth, and it exists in many forms. It appears mostly in the oceans (saltwater) and polar ice caps, but it is also present as clouds, rain water, rivers, freshwater aquifers, lakes, and sea ice. Water in these bodies perpetually moves through a cycle of evaporation, precipitation, and runoff to the sea. Clean water is essential to human life. In many parts of the world, it is in short supply. From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for the proliferation of life that set it apart from other substances. It carries out this role by allowing organic compounds to react in ways that ultimately allow replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water is vital both as a solvent in which many of the body's solutes dissolve and as an essential part of many metabolic processes within the body. Metabolism is the sum total of anabolism and catabolism. In anabolism, water is removed from molecules (through energy requiring enzymatic chemical reactions) in order to grow larger molecules (e.g. starches, triglycerides and proteins for storage of fuels and information). In catabolism, water is used to break bonds in order to generate smaller molecules (e.g. glucose, fatty acids and amino acids to be used for fuels for energy use or other purposes). Water is thus essential and central to these metabolic processes. Water is also central to photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells use the sun's energy to split off water's hydrogen from oxygen. Hydrogen is combined with CO2 (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen. All living cells use such fuels and oxidize the hydrogen and carbon to capture the sun's energy and reform water and CO2 in the process (cellular respiration). Water is also central to acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. An acid, a hydrogen ion (H+, that is, a proton) donor, can be neutralized by a base, a proton acceptor such as hydroxide ion (OH-) to form water. Water is considered to be neutral, with a pH (the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration) of 7. Acids have pH values less than 7 while bases have values greater than 7. Stomach acid (HCl) is useful to digestion. However, its corrosive effect on the esophagus during reflux can temporarily be neutralized by ingestion of a base such as aluminum hydroxide to produce the neutral molecules water and the salt aluminum chloride. Human biochemistry that involves enzymes usually performs optimally around a biologically neutral pH of 7.4. (Wikipedia).7732-18-5C0000196215377937OH2OInChI=1S/H2O/h1H2XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-Nwater18.015318.0105646861water00FDB013390Dihydrogen oxide;Steam;[oh2];Acqua;Agua;Aqua;Bound water;Dihydridooxygen;Eau;H2o;Hoh;Hydrogen hydroxide;WasserPW_C001420H2O5589491095139415131621448113526156242865210691207703382318838210943113774914655415904320182425322226786027274627781728052931437031647236346145983647273749419350302751567519597521410052279452361035297105531911153431135355112540211054701235483125549212655071275534130553711455411295591135560811856221085691657591405778101584114358531465877107589095591014759401516032155605915760871616123163613315962151621816664771786507180660015267131176840188688816071622057181207719320672112117228213723821472432157295198735021673882107401212746722274922247500190758817082012258237226841416292652611850277119221641201128112213285122502861226428712327249125202271263265126932901270529112715292130072981301930013025301130373021326122313327294153403084232731542695318436913227691429377019253771021327713113377215134773783317739733277471333775161157753633477628336777223377775934177816343779823477807132978235352782423537827035679113360800143688003937080591228806561199383038394794384110557390110639391115844398119879232119915122119963406120008407120046408120113124120365412120430405120438409120606415120794414121158425121240429121351121121381419121607434122118382122384436122753120122797374122804443123012446123064376123072137123131447123142136123162448123231451123384450123730460123810464123940455124165469124670399124938471124945472125305297125353479125386481125424482125480299125682483125707478125745487126054490126238495126273484126764480126896501126963502127017388127177208127199209127227504127506507127576515127836389128082395128176513140674790140675834140755185721NADHMDB0000902NAD (or Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is used extensively in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle of cellular respiration. The reducing potential stored in NADH can be converted to ATP through the electron transport chain or used for anabolic metabolism. ATP "energy" is necessary for an organism to live. Green plants obtain ATP through photosynthesis, while other organisms obtain it by cellular respiration. (wikipedia). Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide is a A coenzyme composed of ribosylnicotinamide 5'-diphosphate coupled to adenosine 5'-phosphate by pyrophosphate linkage. It is found widely in nature and is involved in numerous enzymatic reactions in which it serves as an electron carrier by being alternately oxidized (NAD+) and reduced (NADH). (Dorland, 27th ed).53-84-9C00003589315846NAD5682NC(=O)C1=C[N+](=CC=C1)[C@@H]1O[C@H](COP([O-])(=O)OP(O)(=O)OC[C@H]2O[C@H]([C@H](O)[C@@H]2O)N2C=NC3=C2N=CN=C3N)[C@@H](O)[C@H]1OC21H27N7O14P2InChI=1S/C21H27N7O14P2/c22-17-12-19(25-7-24-17)28(8-26-12)21-16(32)14(30)11(41-21)6-39-44(36,37)42-43(34,35)38-5-10-13(29)15(31)20(40-10)27-3-1-2-9(4-27)18(23)33/h1-4,7-8,10-11,13-16,20-21,29-32H,5-6H2,(H5-,22,23,24,25,33,34,35,36,37)/t10-,11-,13-,14-,15-,16-,20-,21-/m1/s1BAWFJGJZGIEFAR-NNYOXOHSSA-N1-[(2R,3R,4S,5R)-5-({[({[(2R,3S,4R,5R)-5-(6-amino-9H-purin-9-yl)-3,4-dihydroxyoxolan-2-yl]methyl phosphono}oxy)(hydroxy)phosphoryl]oxy}methyl)-3,4-dihydroxyoxolan-2-yl]-3-(C-hydroxycarbonimidoyl)-1lambda5-pyridin-1-ylium663.4251663.109121631-2.5281-[(2R,3R,4S,5R)-5-{[({[(2R,3S,4R,5R)-5-(6-aminopurin-9-yl)-3,4-dihydroxyoxolan-2-yl]methyl phosphono}oxy(hydroxy)phosphoryl)oxy]methyl}-3,4-dihydroxyoxolan-2-yl]-3-(C-hydroxycarbonimidoyl)-1lambda5-pyridin-1-ylium0-1FDB0223093-carbamoyl-1-d-ribofuranosylpyridinium hydroxide 5'-ester with adenosine 5'-pyrophosphate;3-carbamoyl-1-beta-d-ribofuranosylpyridinium hydroxide 5'-ester with adenosine 5'-pyrophosphate inner salt;3-carbamoyl-1-beta-delta-ribofuranosylpyridinium hydroxide 5'-ester with adenosine 5'-pyrophosphate inner salt;3-carbamoyl-1-delta-ribofuranosylpyridinium hydroxide 5'-ester with adenosine 5'-pyrophosphate;Adenine-nicotinamide dinucleotide;Co-i;Codehydrase i;Codehydrogenase i;Coenzyme i;Cozymase;Cozymase i;Diphosphopyridine nucleotide;Diphosphopyridine nucleotide oxidized;Endopride;Nad trihydrate;Nad-oxidized;Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide;Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide oxidized;Nicotinamide dinucleotide;Nicotineamide adenine dinucleotide;Oxidized diphosphopyridine nucleotide;Pyridine nucleotide diphosphate;[(3s,2r,4r,5r)-5-(6-aminopurin-9-yl)-3,4-dihydroxyoxolan-2-yl]methyl {[(3s,2r,4r,5r)-5-(3-carbamoylpyridyl)-3,4-dihydroxyoxolan-2-yl]methoxy}(hydroxyphosphoryl) hydrogen phosphate;[adenylate-32-p]-nad;Beta-diphosphopyridine nucleotide;Beta-nad;Beta-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide;Beta-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide trihydrate;Dpn;Nad;Nad+;Nadide;B-nad;β-nadPW_C000721NAD1404150335386511011142113443127351466542229492779172835293107948071848131848192849026496031516795523810353341115360112546912354821255590135561011856961005738108582714159121475942151602415560721576076161638516469178677211768901607012188709716371742057197206740519874592228241226835922590852241181921612322249130062981301830013256223424043224261931577104132771201337720913477370331776503367766733477702332777091307791511377983347784063568000636880690119938251241105523881127501661128539411992912211995240612017140712083441912098440812115942512124212612125942912181738312261438412274212012313044712314113612341945512354937412373146012381244312382946412437039812518712112531929712534247912553048112580629912582549012592448212651549512676548012688550112727850712738350212808939012836039112842839514075718535AmmoniaHMDB0000051Ammonia is a colourless alkaline gas and is one of the most abundant nitrogen-containing compounds in the atmosphere. It is an irritant with a characteristic pungent odor that is widely used in industry. Inasmuch as ammonia is highly soluble in water and, upon inhalation, is deposited in the upper airways, occupational exposures to ammonia have commonly been associated with sinusitis, upper airway irritation, and eye irritation. Acute exposures to high levels of ammonia have also been associated with diseases of the lower airways and interstitial lung. Small amounts of ammonia are naturally formed in nearly all tissues and organs of the vertebrate organism. Ammonia is both a neurotoxin and a metabotoxin. In fact, it is the most common endogenous neurotoxin. A neurotoxin is a compound that causes damage to neural tissue and neural cells. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Ammonia is recognized to be central in the pathogenesis of a brain condition known as hepatic encephalopathy, which arises from various liver diseases and leads to a build up ammonia in the blood (hyperammonemia). More than 40% of people with cirrhosis develop hepatic encephalopathy. Part of the neurotoxicity of ammonia arises from the fact that it easily crosses the blood-brain barrier and is absorbed and metabolized by the astrocytes, a population of cells in the brain that constitutes 30% of the cerebral cortex. Astrocytes use ammonia when synthesizing glutamine from glutamate. The increased levels of glutamine lead to an increase in osmotic pressure in the astrocytes, which become swollen. There is increased activity of the inhibitory gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) system, and the energy supply to other brain cells is decreased. This can be thought of as an example of brain edema. The source of the ammonia leading to hepatic encephalopathy is not entirely clear. The gut produces ammonia, which is metabolized in the liver, and almost all organ systems are involved in ammonia metabolism. Colonic bacteria produce ammonia by splitting urea and other amino acids, however this does not fully explain hyperammonemia and hepatic encephalopathy. The alternative explanation is that hyperammonemia is the result of the intestinal breakdown of amino acids, especially glutamine. The intestines have significant glutaminase activity, predominantly located in the enterocytes. On the other hand, intestinal tissues only have a little glutamine synthetase activity, making it a major glutamine-consuming organ. In addition to the intestine, the kidney is an important source of blood ammonia in patients with liver disease. Ammonia is also taken up by the muscle and brain in hepatic coma, and there is confirmation that ammonia is metabolized in muscle. Excessive formation of ammonia in the brains of Alzheimer's disease patients has also been demonstrated, and it has been shown that some Alzheimer's disease patients exhibit elevated blood ammonia concentrations. Ammonia is the most important natural modulator of lysosomal protein processing. Indeed, there is strong evidence for the involvement of aberrant lysosomal processing of beta-amyloid precursor protein (beta-APP) in the formation of amyloid deposits. Inflammatory processes and activation of microglia are widely believed to be implicated in the pathology of Alzheimer's disease. Ammonia is able to affect the characteristic functions of microglia, such as endocytosis, and cytokine production. Based on these facts, an ammonia-based hypothesis for Alzheimer's disease has been suggested (PMID: 17006913, 16167195, 15377862, 15369278). Chronically high levels of ammonia in the blood are associated with nearly twenty different inborn errors of metabolism including: 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA lyase deficiency, 3-methyl-crotonylglycinuria, argininemia, argininosuccinic aciduria, beta-ketothiolase deficiency, biotinidase deficiency, carbamoyl phosphate synthetase deficiency, carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase deficiency, citrullinemia type I, hyperinsulinism-hyperammonemia syndrome, hyperornithinemia-hyperammonemia-homocitrullinuria syndrome, isovaleric aciduria, lysinuric protein intolerance, malonic aciduria, methylmalonic aciduria, methylmalonic aciduria due to cobalamin-related disorders, propionic acidemia, pyruvate carboxylase deficiency, and short chain acyl CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (SCAD deficiency). Many of these inborn errors of metabolism are associated with urea cycle disorders or impairment of amino acid metabolism. High levels of ammonia in the blood (hyperammonemia) lead to the activation of NMDA receptors in the brain. This results in the depletion of brain ATP, which in turn leads to the release of glutamate. Ammonia also leads to the impairment of mitochondrial function and calcium homeostasis, thereby decreasing ATP synthesis. Excess ammonia also increases the formation of nitric oxide (NO), which in turn reduces the activity of glutamine synthetase, and thereby decreases the elimination of ammonia in the brain (PMID: 12020609). As a neurotoxin, ammonia predominantly affects astrocytes. Disturbed mitochondrial function and oxidative stress, factors implicated in the induction of the mitochondrial permeability transition, appear to be involved in the mechanism of ammonia neurotoxicity. Ammonia can also affect the glutamatergic and GABAergic neuronal systems, the two prevailing neuronal systems of the cortical structures. All of these effects can lead to irreversible brain damage, coma, and/or death. Infants with urea cycle disorders and hyperammonemia initially exhibit vomiting and increasing lethargy. If untreated, seizures, hypotonia (poor muscle tone, floppiness), respiratory distress (respiratory alkalosis), and coma can occur. Adults with urea cycle disorders and hyperammonemia will exhibit episodes of disorientation, confusion, slurred speech, unusual and extreme combativeness or agitation, stroke-like symptoms, lethargy, and delirium. Ammonia also has toxic effects when an individual is exposed to ammonia solutions. Acute exposure to high levels of ammonia in air may be irritating to skin, eyes, throat, and lungs and cause coughing and burns. Lung damage and death may occur after exposure to very high concentrations of ammonia. Swallowing concentrated solutions of ammonia can cause burns in the mouth, throat, and stomach. Splashing ammonia into eyes can cause burns and even blindness.7664-41-7C0001422216134AMMONIA217NH3NInChI=1S/H3N/h1H3QGZKDVFQNNGYKY-UHFFFAOYSA-Nammonia17.030517.0265491011ammonia01FDB003908Ammonia anhydrous;Ammonia inhalant;Ammonia solution strong [usan];Ammonia water;Ammoniak;Liquid ammonia;Am-fol;Ammonia;Ammonia (conc 20% or greater);Ammonia gas;Ammonia solution;Ammonia solution strong (nf);Ammonia water (jp15);Ammoniac [french];Ammoniaca [italian];Ammoniacum gummi;Ammoniak [german];Ammoniak kconzentrierter;Ammoniakgas;Ammonium ion;Amoniak [polish];Anhydrous ammonia;Aromatic ammonia vaporole;Azane;Nh(3);Nh3;Nitro-sil;Primaeres amin;Sekundaeres amin;Spirit of hartshorn;Tertiaeres amin;[nh3];Ammoniac;Amoniaco;R-717;Ammonia solution strongPW_C000035NH397911251338142443824791355014146854253322257235338111601614770221607177205117861981184827711885215127082911271829276966225770462947732913377343132774693337749911377539334775971157798534777993112780723297924429380650135806571191162031091199211221200494081200531261201364071203434061203634121204624051210461241211614251221193821228003741228054431229931201230104461230963761236101181237334601246713991253112971254274821254313011255024811256634791257084781261022991262744841269665021269702071270392061271585011272002091276003881278373891144NADHHMDB0001487NADH is the reduced form of NAD+, and NAD+ is the oxidized form of NADH, A coenzyme composed of ribosylnicotinamide 5'-diphosphate coupled to adenosine 5'-phosphate by pyrophosphate linkage. It is found widely in nature and is involved in numerous enzymatic reactions in which it serves as an electron carrier by being alternately oxidized (NAD+) and reduced (NADH). It forms NADP with the addition of a phosphate group to the 2' position of the adenosyl nucleotide through an ester linkage.(Dorland, 27th ed).58-68-4C0000443915316908NADH388299DB00157NC(=O)C1=CN(C=CC1)[C@@H]1O[C@H](CO[P@](O)(=O)O[P@](O)(=O)OC[C@H]2O[C@H]([C@H](O)[C@@H]2O)N2C=NC3=C(N)N=CN=C23)[C@@H](O)[C@H]1OC21H29N7O14P2InChI=1S/C21H29N7O14P2/c22-17-12-19(25-7-24-17)28(8-26-12)21-16(32)14(30)11(41-21)6-39-44(36,37)42-43(34,35)38-5-10-13(29)15(31)20(40-10)27-3-1-2-9(4-27)18(23)33/h1,3-4,7-8,10-11,13-16,20-21,29-32H,2,5-6H2,(H2,23,33)(H,34,35)(H,36,37)(H2,22,24,25)/t10-,11-,13-,14-,15-,16-,20-,21-/m1/s1BOPGDPNILDQYTO-NNYOXOHSSA-N[({[(2R,3S,4R,5R)-5-(6-amino-9H-purin-9-yl)-3,4-dihydroxyoxolan-2-yl]methoxy}(hydroxy)phosphoryl)oxy]({[(2R,3S,4R,5R)-5-(3-carbamoyl-1,4-dihydropyridin-1-yl)-3,4-dihydroxyoxolan-2-yl]methoxy})phosphinic acid665.441665.124771695-2.358NADH0-2FDB0226491,4-dihydronicotinamide adenine dinucleotide;Dpnh;Dihydrocodehydrogenase i;Dihydrocozymase;Dihydronicotinamide adenine dinucleotide;Dihydronicotinamide mononucleotide;Enada;Nadh;Nadh2;Reduced codehydrogenase i;Reduced diphosphopyridine nucleotide;Reduced nicotinamide adenine diphosphate;Reduced nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide;B-dpnh;B-nadh;Beta-dpnh;Beta-nadh;Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (reduced);Reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotidePW_C001144NADH143415334908648101115212755146954223049278117283629310994806184812184821284904649593151699552401035332111535811254661235479125559313556981005737108582914159151475945151602715560791616387164721786771117689316070111887099163717220571952067462222824422683602259086224118091981182121612320249130032981301530013255223424033224261831577107132771231337720813477371331776513367766833477700332777071307791711377986347800093688069111993822124110549388112854941158381181199554061201724071203781221209864081211624251212441261216934291218183831226163841227451201231274471231381361235513741237344601238144431242424641243713981251891211253454791255314811257622971258082991259264821265164951267674801268885011273855021280903901283623911284293951407591852362Alanine aminotransferase 2Q8TD30Catalyzes the reversible transamination between alanine and 2-oxoglutarate to form pyruvate and glutamate.
HMDBP03670GPT216q12.1AC01884512.6.1.2145150183342261Sodium-coupled neutral amino acid transporter 4Q969I6Sodium-dependent amino acid transporter. Mediates electrogenic symport of neutral amino acids and sodium ions. Has a broad specificity, with a preference for Ala, followed by His, Cys, Asn, Ser, Gly, Val, Thr, Gln and Met. May mediate sodium- independent transport of cationic amino acids, such as Arg and Lys. Amino acid uptake is pH-dependent, with low transport activities at pH 6.5, intermediate at pH 7.0 and highest between pH 7.5 and 8.5HMDBP03128SLC38A412q13AF193836184501414408975795Alanine aminotransferase 1P24298Catalyzes the reversible transamination between alanine and 2-oxoglutarate to form pyruvate and glutamate. Participates in cellular nitrogen metabolism and also in liver gluconeogenesis starting with precursors transported from skeletal muscles (By similarity).
HMDBP00850GPT8q24.3U7073212.6.1.21921459261832841104653485126243114045280214045371405091143438393143726322144090532449Solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 2P11168Facilitative glucose transporter. This isoform likely mediates the bidirectional transfer of glucose across the plasma membrane of hepatocytes and is responsible for uptake of glucose by the beta cells; may comprise part of the glucose-sensing mechanism of the beta cell. May also participate with the Na(+)/glucose cotransporter in the transcellular transport of glucose in the small intestine and kidney.
HMDBP05474SLC2A23q26.1-q26.2CH47105218451228141627531416866614193167142224308143880511439308685410Solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 4P14672Insulin-regulated facilitative glucose transporter.
HMDBP11765SLC2A417p13BC11359214346148064822880659151411393082498Mitochondrial glutamate carrier 1Q9H936Involved in the transport of glutamate across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Glutamate is cotransported with H(+).
HMDBP07235SLC25A2211p15.5AJ4282021845217658Glutamate dehydrogenase 1, mitochondrialP00367
Mitochondrial glutamate dehydrogenase that converts L-glutamate into alpha-ketoglutarate. Plays a key role in glutamine anaplerosis by producing alpha-ketoglutarate, an important intermediate in the tricarboxylic acid cycle. May be involved in learning and memory reactions by increasing the turnover of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate (By similarity).
HMDBP00694GLUD110q23.3X6630611.4.1.31444147054487532251Neutral amino acid transporter AP43007Transporter for alanine, serine, cysteine, and threonine. Exhibits sodium dependenceHMDBP03110SLC1A42p15-p13AK29568711431641414400553395Alanine aminotransferase 21PW_P0003954172362219111481397Sodium-coupled neutral amino acid transporter1PW_P000397419226112Alanine aminotransferase 11PW_P0000023795221148142398Solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 21PW_P00039842024491399Solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 41PW_P00039942154101400Mitochondrial glutamate carrier 11PW_P0004004222498132Glutamate dehydrogenase 1, mitochondrial1PW_P0000323365861254396Neutral amino acid transporter A1PW_P000396418225112falsePW_R000002Both71051Compoundfalse81341Compoundtrue9951Compoundtrue101641Compoundfalse222.6.1.24993952.6.1.238falsePW_R000038Right136951Compoundfalse13714201Compoundtrue1387211Compoundtrue1391341Compoundfalse140351Compoundtrue14111441Compoundtrue38321.4.1.341PW_T000041441051Compound5126Right143972013-07-22T20:20:18-06:002013-07-22T20:20:18-06:005342PW_T00004245771Compound2651Right153982013-07-22T20:27:35-06:002013-07-22T20:27:35-06:005343PW_T00004346771Compound5150Right163992013-07-22T20:30:30-06:002013-07-22T20:30:30-06:005244PW_T00004447951Compound2654Right48400341Compound2654Right174002013-07-22T20:43:01-06:002013-07-22T20:44:26-06:005540PW_T000040431051Compound5051Right133962013-07-22T20:16:56-06:002013-07-22T20:16:56-06:005223921055081false850108010regular20019023931345081false1200107010regular2001902394955081false120073010regular20019023951645081false84573010regular20019023961148509false107595520regular100352397775081false29073010regular20019023981055181false850156010regular20019023991052681false850212010regular20019024001342681false1055225510regular2001902401952681false1055246510regular20019024021642681false850257010regular20019024031148269false905240019regular100352404772681false285257010regular2001902405775181false285155010regular2001902407955481false1057303010regular2001902408400342655false1263267110regular78782409400345455false1263296610regular7878241014205449false922317010regular787824117215459false927304510regular503024121345481false352303310regular2001902413355463false558316910regular7878241411445460false587304610regular50308832362506false10459658proteinregular1608088522611476false87520108subunitregular15070886795266false87024108proteinregular16080887244922876false31020108subunitregular15070888541076false31013308subunitregular1507089024981776false1082284519subunitregular150708916585417false68730858subunitregular18085893225176false87513308subunitregular15070831395565087688338323963491Cofactor833397568788858342562687988638424033503Cofactor835398568808878363995688188883840056883890839325654884891841396568868933487M1050 1175 C1114 1170 1125 1075 1125 1045 5false18trueM 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345false3488M1200 1165 C1136 1166 1125 1075 1125 1045 5false18trueM 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345false3489M1200 825 C1124 826 1125 935 1125 965 5false18trueM 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345false3490M1045 825 C1117 826 1125 935 1125 965 5false18falsefalse3491M35 535 L35 585 L85 535 z10true183492M490 825 C520 825 555 825 585 825 5false183493M845 825 C815 825 765 825 735 825 5false18trueM 957.0096189432334 632.5 L 970 625 L 957.0096189432334 617.5false3494M945 730 C945 663 945 708 945 640 5false18trueM 1012.5 562.0096189432334 L 1020 575 L 1027.5 562.0096189432334false3497M950 1750 C950 1780 950 1980 950 2010 83false18trueM 1012.5 1797.0096189432334 L 1020 1810 L 1027.5 1797.0096189432334false3498M950 2120 C950 2090 950 2110 950 2080 83false18trueM 1012.5 1942.0096189432334 L 1020 1955 L 1027.5 1942.0096189432334false3499M950 2310 C949 2343 950 2380 950 2410 5false18trueM 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345false3500M1055 2350 C976 2349 950 2380 950 2410 5false18trueM 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345false3501M1055 2560 C1004 2560 950 2520 950 2490 5false18trueM 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345false3502M950 2570 C952 2553 950 2520 950 2490 5false18trueM 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345false3503M895 2725 L895 2775 L945 2725 z10true183504M850 2665 C820 2665 760 2665 730 2665 5false183505M485 2665 C515 2665 550 2665 580 2665 5false18trueM 587.9903810567666 2652.5 L 575 2660 L 587.9903810567666 2667.5false3506M385 2570 C385 2540 385 2110 385 2080 83false18trueM 592.5 1892.9903810567666 L 585 1880 L 577.5 1892.9903810567666false3507M385 1740 C385 1770 385 1980 385 2010 83false18trueM 532.5 2402.9903810567666 L 525 2390 L 517.5 2402.9903810567666false3508M385 1550 C385 1520 385 1430 385 1400 83false18trueM 592.5 1187.9903810567666 L 585 1175 L 577.5 1187.9903810567666false3509M390 920 C390 950 385 1300 385 1330 83false18trueM 532.5 687.9903810567666 L 525 675 L 517.5 687.9903810567666false3512M1045 2750 C1063 2787 1097 2884 1097 2914 83true183513M1157 3030 C1154 2966 1155 2685 1155 2655 83false18trueM 1289.230178342811 3075.2579483114673 L 1292 3090 L 1303.382080437578 3080.2302382366556false3514M1155 2655 C1153 2696 1302 2936 1302 2966 83true183515M1263 3005 C1113 3004 1120 2709 1263 2710 83false18trueM 1410.4462347615424 3086.433887476377 L 1422 3096 L 1424.507613841689 3081.211089532323false3516M1057 3125 C1027 3125 897 3125 867 3125 5false183517M961 3170 C957 3134 897 3125 867 3125 5false183518M952 3075 C951 3107 897 3125 867 3125 5false183519M552 3128 C582 3128 657 3125 687 3125 5false18trueM 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345false3520M597 3169 C612 3134 657 3125 687 3125 5false18trueM 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345false3521M612 3076 C612 3121 657 3125 687 3125 5false18trueM 25.946855044164835 13.26155629629604 L 11 12 L 17.380887721185843 25.575134323078345false3522M597 3247 C597 3299 597 3319 597 3373 5false18trueM 719.9903810567666 3335.5 L 707 3343 L 719.9903810567666 3350.5false3523M1400 825 C1430 825 1475 825 1505 825 5false18trueM 1257.9903810567666 612.5 L 1245 620 L 1257.9903810567666 627.5false3528M950 1270 C950 1300 950 1300 950 1330 83false18trueM 1012.5 1092.0096189432334 L 1020 1105 L 1027.5 1092.0096189432334false3529M950 1560 C950 1530 950 1430 950 1400 83false18trueM 1012.5 1387.0096189432334 L 1020 1400 L 1027.5 1387.0096189432334false73056250264223923487Left264323933488Left264423943489Right264523953490Right67349983173156226264623993499Left264724003500Left264824013501Right264924023502Right6742834732563854265024073516Left265124103517Left265224113518Left265324123519Right265424133520Right265524143521Right6753883964415613323983497Left13423993498Right128331465425613524043506Left13624053507Right138351566435613724053508Left13823973509Right148361668445614124013512Left14224073513Right14324083514Left14424093515Right168381769405614523923528Left14623983529Right1784113108705614false58579016regular7823973492Left7923953493Right109715614false87057016regular8023953494Right110725614false580263016regular8124023504Left8224043505Right111735614false522337316regular8324133522Left1127456217false150579016regular8423943523Right10513169529350.60.6852149024010672111015453.03.00392001451077410514652.02.00211580250132141530351.11.1102184233331871844008710.90.90290484497187186132521351.31.30314327267479831167022931.31.37023280360157M230 2925 C230 2875 280 2825 330 2825 C643 2825 1050 2825 1363 2825 C1413 2825 1463 2875 1463 2925 C1463 3091 1463 3307 1463 3473 C1463 3523 1413 3573 1363 3573 C1050 3573 643 3573 330 3573 C280 3573 230 3523 230 3473 C230 3307 230 3091 230 2925 84true61233.0748.0158M301 3010 C301 2960 351 2910 401 2910 C672 2910 1023 2910 1294 2910 C1344 2910 1394 2960 1394 3010 C1394 3129 1394 3285 1394 3404 C1394 3454 1344 3504 1294 3504 C1023 3504 672 3504 401 3504 C351 3504 301 3454 301 3404 C301 3285 301 3129 301 3010 84true61093.0594.0159M131 2149 C131 2099 181 2049 231 2049 C684 2049 1273 2049 1726 2049 C1776 2049 1826 2099 1826 2149 C1826 2581 1826 3144 1826 3576 C1826 3626 1776 3676 1726 3676 C1273 3676 684 3676 231 3676 C181 3676 131 3626 131 3576 C131 3144 131 2581 131 2149 1true61695.01627.0160M229 573 C229 523 279 473 329 473 C723 473 1234 473 1628 473 C1678 473 1728 523 1728 573 C1728 785 1728 1062 1728 1274 C1728 1324 1678 1374 1628 1374 C1234 1374 723 1374 329 1374 C279 1374 229 1324 229 1274 C229 1062 229 785 229 573 1true61499.0901.0167235Mitochondria15202905201.01.020015168235Blood Vessel5201575201.31.320015169235Myocyte395415201.31.320015170235Muscle555205201.31.320015171235Liver12801585201.31.320015172235Hepatocyte5201990201.31.320015173235Mitochondrial Matrix6902970201.01.02001517415Mitochondrial Inner Membrane3802865201.31.31601517515Mitochondrial Outer Membrane3852780201.31.31601555127217251032022185237014417491679561623304620527971490359740#FFEBEB412858005765131320344817531404441550956