Browsing Pathways

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are formed by the normal metabolic process of oxygen. Examples are superoxide, oxygen ions and peroxides and can be of either organic or inorganic origin. ROS are highly reactive due to unpaired valence shell electrons, and can cause serious damage to cells and cell organelles. The environment also may cause ROS to form, from sources such as drought, air pollutants, UV light, cold temperatures, and external chemicals. An organic example of ROS being formed is during the beta oxidation of fatty acids, or photorespiration in photosynthetic organisms. Aerobic organisms who produce energy through the electron transport chain in mitochondria produce ROS as a byproduct. ROS damage commmonly includes DNA damage, lipid peroxidation, oxidation of amino acids in proteins, and oxidatively inactivating enzymes by oxidation of cofactors. Most aerobic organisms have adapted to this dangerous condition of life, and have a system of enzymes and scavenging free radicals. Enzymes such as are essential for defense against ROS, and include superoxide dismutases (SODs) and hydroperoxidase (CAT). Superoxide dismutases are the primary method of disposal of ROS, and convert superoxide radicals to hydrogen peroxide and water. Catalase attacks the hydrogen peroxide produced by SODs, and converts it into oxygen and water. In skin cells, 5,6 dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid oxidase in the melanosome membranes breaks down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.

Trehalose, also known as mycose or tremalose, is a sugar consisting of two 1-1 alpha bonded glucose molecules. It is produced by some plants, bacteria, fungi and invertebrates, and can be used as a source of energy, such as for flight in insects, and as a survival mechanism to avoid freezing and dehydration. After ingestion in the intestine lumen, trehalose can interact with trehalase, which exists in the brush border of the cells there. In a reaction that also requires a water molecule, it is broken. These are then transported into the epithelial cells along with a sodium ion by a sodium/glucose cotransporter, which can bring glucose up its gradient along with sodium moving down its gradient. Once inside the cell, the glucose can then be transported out of the basolateral membrane by a solute carrier family 2 facilitated glucose transporter. From there, the glucose enters the blood stream, and is transported to liver hepatocytes. Once in the liver, glucokinase can use the energy and phosphate from a molecule of ATP to form glucose-6-phosphate, which then goes on to start the process of glycolysis.

Folates are very important cofactors that provide support for many biosynthetic reactions. The reactions depicted in this pathway include reactions that are paired with transports, within the cell, travelling intracellularly, which allows folate to be absorbed by cells, as well as the synthesis of pterines, which are used in folate synthesis. Two branches are depicted: Pterin synthesis and Folate biosynthesis. In pterin synthesis, GTP is the precursor for pterin biosynthesis. In the first reaction, GTP cyclohydrolase acts to create formamidopyrimidine nucleoside triphosphate from guanosine triphosphate, which is provided from the purine metabolism pathway. Formamidopyrimidine nucleoside triphosphate then uses GTP cyclohydrolase again to create 2,5-diaminopyrimidine nucleoside triphosphate. GTP cyclohydrolase then works with 2,5-diaminopyrimidine nucleoside triphosphate to produce 2,3-diamino-6-(5’-triphosphoryl-3’,4’-trihydroxy-2’-oxopentyl)-amino-4-oxopyrimidine, which is then converted by GTP cyclohydrolase to dihydroneopterin triphosphate. Dihydroneopterin is then transported to the mitochondria and subsequently catalyzed into dyspropterin, which then exits the mitochondria to continue pterin biosynthesis. Once having been transported from the mitochondria, dyspropterin uses sepiapterin reductase, aldose reductase and carbonyl reductase [NADPH] 1 to create 6-lactoyltetrahydropterin. This compound then undergoes 2 reactions, the first being sepiapterin reductase converting 6-lactoyltetrahydropterin into tetrahydrobiopterin, the second being 6-lactoyltetrahydropterin being converted to sepiapterin. Both branches of pterin reactions then respectively end in the creation of neopterin and dihydrobiopterin.

The Spermidine and Spermine Biosynthesis pathway highlights the creation of these cruicial polyamines. Spermidine and spermine are produced in many tissues, as they are involved in the regulation of genetic processes from DNA synthesis to cell migration, proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. These positiviely charged amines interact with negatively charged phosphates in nucleic acids to exert their regulatory effects on cellular processes. Spermidine originates from the action of spermidine synthase, which converts the methionine derivative S-adenosylmethionine and the ornithine derivative putrescine into spermidine 5'-methylthioadenosine. Spermidine is subsequently processed into spermine by spermine synthase in the presence of the aminopropyl donor, S-adenosylmethioninamine.

Pantothenate, also called vitamin B5, is a nutrient that everyone requires in their diet. The nutrient gets its name from the greek word “pantothen” which means “from everywhere.” The reason it is called this is because pantothenic acid is found in almost every food. It is a precursor of coenzyme A, which is an essential part of many reactions in the body, specifically important in the production of compounds like cholesterol and different fatty acids. Most of pantothenic acid is found in food as phosphopentetheine or coenzyme A. Pantothenic acid, pantetheine 4’-phosphate and pantetheine are all found in red blood cells. The 6 step process in which coenzyme A is created begins with the creation of pantothenic acid from pantetheine, which is catalyzed by the enzyme pantetheinase. Pantothenic acid then works with pantothenate kinase 1 to produce D-4’-phosphopantothenate. This compound quickly becomes 4’phosphopantothenoylcysteine through the enzyme phosphopantothenate-cysteine ligase. 4’phosphopantothenoylcysteine then uses phosphopantothenoylcysteine decarboxylase to create pantetheine 4’-phosphate. This compound then undergoes two reactions, both resulting in the production of dephospho-CoA; the first reaction uses ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family member 1, the second uses bifunctional coenzyme A synthase. In the final step of coenzyme A synthesization, bifunctional coenzyme A synthase catalyzes dephospho-CoA into coenzyme A.

Cardiolipin (CL) is an important component of the inner mitochondrial membrane where it constitutes about 20% of the total lipid composition. It is essential for the optimal function of numerous enzymes that are involved in mitochondrial energy metabolism . Cardiolipin biosynthesis occurs mainly in the mitochondria, but there also exists an alternative synthesis route for CDP-diacylglycerol that takes place in the endoplasmic reticulum. This second route may supplement this pathway. All membrane-localized enzymes are coloured dark green in the image. First, dihydroxyacetone phosphate (or glycerone phosphate) from glycolysis is used by the cytosolic enzyme glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase [NAD(+)] to synthesize sn-glycerol 3-phosphate. Second, the mitochondrial outer membrane enzyme glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase esterifies an acyl-group to the sn-1 position of sn-glycerol 3-phosphate to form 1-acyl-sn-glycerol 3-phosphate (lysophosphatidic acid or LPA). Third, the enzyme 1-acyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase converts LPA into phosphatidic acid (PA or 1,2-diacyl-sn-glycerol 3-phosphate) by esterifying an acyl-group to the sn-2 position of the glycerol backbone. PA is then transferred to the inner mitochondrial membrane to continue cardiolipin synthesis. Fourth, magnesium-dependent phosphatidate cytidylyltransferase catalyzes the conversion of PA into CDP-diacylglycerol. Fifth, CDP-diacylglycerol--glycerol-3-phosphate 3-phosphatidyltransferase synthesizes phosphatidylglycerophosphate (PGP). Sixth, phosphatidylglycerophosphatase and protein-tyrosine phosphatase dephosphorylates PGP to form phosphatidylglycerol (PG). Last, cardiolipin synthase catalyzes the synthesis of cardiolipin by transferring a phosphatidyl group from a second CDP-diacylglycerol to PG.

Arsenate is a compound similar to phosphate, but containing an arsenic atom instead of the phosphorous. As such, it is treated similarly to a phosphate ion. However, if the arsenate replaces inorganic phosphates in glycolysis, it allows glycolysis to proceed, but does not generate ATP, uncoupling glycolysis. It can also bind to lipoic acid in the Krebs cycle, leading to a greater loss of ATP. Arsenate can enter into the cell via aquaporins 7 and 9, as well as facilitated glucose transporter members 1 and 4 of solute carrier family 2, and does so by diffusion. Once inside the cell, the arsenate can be converted to arsenite via the glutathione S-transferase omega-1 enzyme, or it can be converted to ribose-1-arsenate via the purine nucleoside phosphorylase. Ribose-1-arsenate then can spontaneously form arsenite through a reaction involving hydrogen and dihydrolipoate. After arsenite has been formed by either of these methods, arsenite methyltransferase catalyzes its formation into methylarsonate. From here, it forms methylarsonite via the glutathione S-transferase omega-1 enzyme again. The methylarsonite reacts with S-adenosylmethionine, catalyzed by arsenite methyltransferase, in order to become dimethylarsinate. Finally, the compound once again interacts with the glutathione S-transferase omega-1 enzyme to form dimethylarsinous acid, the final compound in this pathway.

Aldosterone is a hormone produced in the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex. It's function is to act on the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct of the nephron to make them more permeable to sodium to allow for its reuptake (in addition to allowing potassium wasting). As a result, water follows the sodium back into the body. The water retention contributes to an increased blood volume. Angiotensin II from the circulation binds to receptors on the zona glomerulosa cell membrane, activating the G protein and triggering a signaling cascade. The end result is the activation of the steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein that permits cholesterol uptake into the mitochondria. From there, cholesterol undergoes a series of reactions in both the mitochondrion and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (steroidogenesis) where it finally becomes aldosterone.

This pathway is part of a major route of the degradation of L-tryptophan. It begins with 2-amino-3-carboxymuconate-6-semialdehyde which is generated from L-tryptophan degradation. The 2-amino-3-carboxymuconate-6-semialdehyde first is acted upon by a decarboxylase, forming 2-aminomuconic acid semialdehyde, which is then dehydrogenated by 2-aminomuconic semialdehyde dehydrogenase to form 2-aminomuconic acid. An unknown protein forms a 2-aminomuconate deaminase which forms (3E)-2-oxohex-3-enedioate, and a second unknown protein forms a 2-aminomuconate reductase, which forms oxoadipic acid from (3E)-2-oxohex-3-enedioate. Finally, within the mitochondria, oxoadipic acid is dehydrogenated and a coenzyme A is attached by the organelle’s oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complex, forming glutaryl-CoA. Glutaryl-CoA can then be further degraded.

The loop of Henle of the nephron can be separated into an ascending limb and the descending limb. The ascending limb is highly impermeable to water, but permeable to solutes. Conversely, the descending limb is highly impermeable to solutes such as sodium, but permeable to water. As solutes are being actively transported out of the ascending limb, the solutes cause in increase in osmotic pressure. This, combined with the ability for water to move freely out of the descending limb, leads to a water reabsorption into the adjacent capillary network and a high concentration of sodium in the filtrate at the descending Limb. Water moves from the descending loop to the capillary network through aquaporin channels in the cell membrane.