Browsing Pathways
Showing 81 -
90 of 605359 pathways
SMPDB ID | Pathway Name and Description | Pathway Class | Chemical Compounds | Proteins |
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SMP0121029View Pathway |
Pancreas Function - Alpha CellAlpha cells are a type of islet cell found in the pancreas that release glucagon. Glucagon counteracts insulin and functions to maintain glucose homeostasis when detected glucose levels are low. Glucagon is contained in granules in the cell as a reserve ready to be released. Extracellular glucose levels and ion channels regulate the secretion of glucagon. Glucose undergoes glycolysis to increase ATP in the cell. The moderate activity of potassium ATP channels causes the membrane potential to be around -70mV. The alpha cell then becomes electrically active due to the closure of potassium channels. The cell membrane becomes depolarized due to voltage dependent sodium, potassium and calcium channels. This causes an increase in action potentials and opens voltage gate calcium channels causing an increase of calcium into the cell. This triggers the exocytosis of glucagon from the cell. Conversely, an increase in extracellular glucose leads to an increase in ATP production and inhibition of potassium ATP channels. The membrane depolarizes to a membrane potential that inactivates voltage dependent calcium channels. This results in decreased intracellular calcium and inhibits exocytosis of glucagon.
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Physiological
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SMP0121010View Pathway |
Kidney Function - Ascending Limb of The Loop of HenleThe loop of Henle of the nephron can be separated into an ascending limb and the descending limb. The descending limb is highly impermeable to solutes such as sodium, but permeable to water. Conversely, the ascending limb is highly impermeable to water, but permeable to solutes. Chloride, potassium, and sodium are co-transported across the apical membrane (closest to the lumen) via transporters from the filtrate. The transporter requires all three ions present to be effective and to maintain electroneutrality. In addition, the three ions are transported across the basolateral membrane (closest to the renal interstitium) via other means such as the sodium potassium ATPase transports and the chloride channels in the membrane. As these solutes are being actively transported out of the ascending limb and into the renal interstitium/capillary network without water following (due to the lack of water permeability), the filtrate becomes more diluted. Furthermore, these ions simultaneously causes an increase in osmotic pressure that contributes to water reabsorption in the descending limb. This effect can be magnified with the help of vasopressin, which is a hormone that is typically involved with water reabsorption. However, when it acts on the ascending limb, it aids in increasing sodium reabsorption which will increase water reabsorption in the latter parts of the nephron (the distal tubule and collecting duct).
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Physiological
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SMP0000029View Pathway |
Selenoamino Acid MetabolismPhospholipids are membrane components in P. aeruginosa. The major phospholipids of P. aeruginosa are phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylglycerol, and cardiolipin. All phospholipids contain sn-glycerol-3-phosphate esterified with fatty acids at the sn-1 and sn-2 positions. The reaction starts from a glycerone phosphate (dihydroxyacetone phosphate) produced in glycolysis. The glycerone phosphate is transformed into an sn-glycerol 3-phosphate (glycerol 3 phosphate) by NADPH-driven glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. sn-Glycerol 3-phosphate is transformed to a 1-acyl-sn-glycerol 3-phosphate (lysophosphatidic acid). This can be achieved by an sn-glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase that interacts either with a long-chain acyl-CoA or with an acyl-[acp]. The 1-acyl-sn-glycerol 3-phosphate is transformed into a 1,2-diacyl-sn-glycerol 3-phosphate (phosphatidic acid) through a 1-acylglycerol-3-phosphate O-acyltransferase. This compound is then converted into a CPD-diacylglycerol through a CTP phosphatidate cytididyltransferase. CPD-diacylglycerol can be transformed either into an L-1-phosphatidylserine or an L-1-phosphatidylglycerol-phosphate through a phosphatidylserine synthase or a phosphatidylglycerophosphate synthase, respectively. The L-1-phosphatidylserine transforms into L-1-phosphatidylethanolamine through a phosphatidylserine decarboxylase. On the other hand, L-1-phosphatidylglycerol-phosphate gets transformed into an L-1-phosphatidyl-glycerol through a phosphatidylglycerophosphatase. These 2 products combine to produce a cardiolipin and an ethanolamine. The L-1 phosphatidyl-glycerol can also interact with cardiolipin synthase resulting in a glycerol and a cardiolipin.
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SMP0000126View Pathway |
Phenylacetate MetabolismPhenylacetate (or phenylacetic acid) metabolism involves two steps. The first step is the conversion of phenylacetate into phenylacetyl-CoA which is catalyzed by acyl-coenzyme A synthetase ACSM1 or acyl-coenzyme A synthetase ACSM2B. Coenzyme A and ATP are also involved in this first step and AMP and pyrophosphate will be generated during the first step of metabolism. In the second step, phenylacetyl-CoA and L-glutamine interacts with glycine N-acyltransferase to generate coenzyme A as well as phenylacetylglutamine, of which the latter will be excreted in the urine. Phenylacetate metabolism provides a route that facilitates the excretion of nitrogen for patients with urea cycle defects; hence, it is important for clinical purposes.
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SMP0000036View Pathway |
D-Arginine and D-Ornithine MetabolismD-Amino acids have been show to be present in high concentrations in humans and play a role in biological functions. D-Amino may have negative effects as they can be found in some bacteria or form spontaneously in certain reactions. D-Amino acid oxidase (DAAO) is one of the main enzymes that metabolize D-Amino acids via deamination. DAAO is highly specific towards D-amino acids and favours free neutral D-amino acids or those with hydrophobic, polar or aromatic groups. Acidic amino acids are not catalyze by DAOO.
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SMP0000073View Pathway |
Butyrate MetabolismButyrate metabolism (Butanoate metabolism) describes the metabolic fate of a number of short chain fatty acids or short chain alcohols that are typically produced by intestinal fermentation. Many of these molecules are eventually used in the production of ketone bodies, the creation of short-chain lipids or as precursors to the citrate cycle, glycolysis or glutamate synthesis. The molecule for which this pathway is named, butyric acid, is a four-carbon fatty acid that is formed in the human colon by bacterial fermentation of carbohydrates (including dietary fiber). It is found in rancid butter, parmesan cheese, and vomit, and has an unpleasant odor and acrid taste, with a sweet aftertaste (similar to ether).
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SMP0000046View Pathway |
Pyrimidine MetabolismA group of heterocyclic aromatic organic compound, pyrimidines are similar in structure to benzene and pyridine and count the nucleic acids cytosine, thymine, and uracil as structural derivatives. The following pathway illustrates a many pyrimidine-associated processes such as nucleotide biosynthesis, degradation, and salvage. This pathway depicts a number of pyrimidine-related processes such as nucleotide biosynthesis, degradation, and salvage. For pyrimidine nucleotide biosynthesis, carbamoyl phosphate derived from the action of carbamoyl phosphate synthetase II (CPS-II) on glutamine and bicarbonate is converted into carbamoyl aspartate by aspartate transcarbamoylase, ATCase. Dihydroorotic acid is subsequently generated by the action of carbamoyl aspartate dehydrogenase on carbamoyl aspartate. Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase then converts dihydroorotic acid to orotic acid. From this point, orotate phosphoribosyltransferase incorporates phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate into (PRPP) to produce orotidine monophosphate. Orotidine-5’-phosphate carboxylase subsequently converts orotidine monophosphate into uridine monophosphate (UMP). UMP is further phosphorylated twice to form UTP; the first instance by uridylate kinase and the second instance by ubiquitous nucleoside diphosphate kinase. UTP moves into the CTP synthesis pathway with the action of CTP synthase which aminates the molecule.
The uridine nucleotides are also feedstock for the de novo thymine nucleotides synthesis pathway. DeoxyUMP which is derived from UDP or CDP metabolism is transformed by the action of thymidylate synthase into deoxyTMP of which the methyl group is sourced from N5,N10-methylene THF. THF is subsequently regenerated from DHF via dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) which is essential for the continuation of thymidylate synthase activity. Serine hydroxymethyl transferase then acts on THF to regenerate N5,N10-THF.
Pyrimidine synthesis is a comparatively simpler process than purine synthesis due to a couple of factors; pyrimidine ring structure is assembled as a free base rather being derived from PRPP and there is no branch in the pyrimidine synthesis pathway as opposed to the purine synthesis pathway. For thymidine, the action of thymidine kinase on it (or alternatively deoxyuridine) plays an important role in what is referred to as the salvage pathway to dTTP synthesis. However to form dTMP, the action of thymine phosphorylase and thymidine kinase is required. For deoxycytidine, deoxycytidine kinase is required (deoxycytidine also acts on deoxyadenosine and deoxyguanosine). For uracil, UMP can be formed by the action of uridine phosphorylase and uridine kinase on uracil. Pyrimidine catabolism ultimately results in the formation of the waste products of urea, H2O, and CO2. The product of cytosine breakdown, uracil, can be broken down to N-carbamoyl-β-alanine which can be catabolized into β-alanine. The product of thymine breakdown is β-aminoisobutyrate. The transamination of α-ketoglutarate to glutamate requires both of these breakdown products (β-alanine and β-aminoisobutyrate) to act as amine group donors. The products of this transamination can move through a further reaction that produces malonyl-CoA or methylmalonyl-CoA, a precursor for succinyl-CoA which is used in the Krebs cycle.
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SMP0000040View Pathway |
GlycolysisGlycolysis is a metabolic pathway with sequence of ten reactions involving ten intermediate compounds that converts glucose to pyruvate. Glycolysis release free energy for forming high energy compound such as ATP and NADH. Glycolysis is consisted of two phases, which one of them is chemical priming phase and second phase is energy-yielding phase. As the starting compound of chemical priming phase, D-glucose can be obtained from galactose metabolism or imported by monosaccharide-sensing protein 1 from outside of cell. D-Glucose is catalyzed by probable hexokinase-like 2 protein to form glucose 6-phosphate which is powered by ATP. Glucose 6-phosphate transformed to fructose 6-phosphate by glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, which the later compound will be converted to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, which is the last reaction of chemical priming phase by 6-phosphofructokinase with cofactor magnesium, and it is also powered by ATP. Before entering the second phase, aldolase catalyzing the hydrolysis of F1,6BP into dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate can convert to each other bidirectionally by facilitation of triosephosphate isomerase. The second phase of glycolysis is yielding-energy phase that produce ATP and NADH. At the first step, D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is catalyzed to glyceric acid 1,3-biphosphate by glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase with NAD, which also generate NADH. ATP is generated through the reaction that convert glyceric acid 1,3-biphosphate to 3-phosphoglyceric acid. Phosphoglycerate mutase 2 catalyze 3-phosphoglyceric acid to 2-Phospho-D-glyceric acid, and alpha-enolase with cofactor magnesium catalyzes 2-Phospho-D-glyceric acid to phosphoenolpyruvic acid. Eventually, plastidial pyruvate kinase 4 converts phosphoenolpyruvic acid to pyruvate with cofactor magnesium and potassium and ADP. Pyruvate will undergo pyruvate metabolism, tyrosine metabolism and pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis.
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SMP0000067View Pathway |
Aspartate MetabolismAspartate is synthesized by transamination of oxaloacetate by aspartate aminotransferase or amino acid oxidase. Aspartyl-tRNA synthetase can then couple aspartate to aspartyl tRNA for protein synthesis. The aspartate content in human proteins is about 7%. Asparagine synthase can convert aspartate to the polar amino acid asparagine. Aspartate is also a precursor for cellular signaling compounds such as, N-acetyl-aspartate, beta-alanine, adenylsuccinate, arginino-succinate and N-carbamoylaspartate. Aspartate is also a metabolite in the urea cycle and involved in gluconeogenesis. Additionally, aspartate carries the reducing equivalents in the mitochondrial malate-aspartate shuttle, which utilizes the ready interconversion of aspartate and oxaloacetate. The conjugate base of L-aspartic acid, aspartate, also acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain which activates NMDA receptors.
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SMP0000068View Pathway |
Androgen and Estrogen MetabolismThis pathway describes the inactivation and catabolism of male (androgen) and female (estrogen) hormones. Many steroid hormones are transformed by sulfatases, dehydrogenases and glucuronide transferases to enhance their solubility and to facilitate their elimination. Inactivation means to convert an active compound into an inactive compound. Peripheral inactivation, which is inactivation caused by outside enzymes such as liver enzymes for example, is needed to maintain a steady-state level of plasma. This means that if either of these hormones are to be “chemical signals”, their half-life in the bloodstream has to be limited so that a variation in secretion rate can be emulated in the plasma. A large part of inactivation/catabolism occurs in the liver, although a little bit of catabolic activity does happen in the kidneys. Inactive androgens and estrogens are mostly eliminated in the urine. For this to happen, androgen and estrogen need to be converted to compounds that are less hydrophobic so that they are more soluble at higher concentrations. In this pathway, the conversion to a hydrophilic compound is an oxidation of a 17b-hydroxyl group. These hormones are needed for sexual development in both males and females.
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Showing 81 -
90 of 98217 pathways