Pathways

Lisdexamfetamine, known commonly as Vyvanse, is a prodrug of amphetamine paired with lysine and used mainly for treating ADHD and binge eating disorders. The drug was engineered to be abuse-resistant with a delayed release. ADHD is caused by an abnormality in the dopamine transporter gene (DAT1), the D4 receptor gene (DRD-4), and/or the D2 receptor gene. It has also been found to affect the alpha-2A adrenergic receptor in the prefrontal cortex. This abnormality makes it harder for dopamine and norepinephrine to bind to the receptors. These receptors regulate attention, movement, and impulsivity so a defeciency in the regulation of those systems causes ADHD. Lisdexamfetamine blocks the reuptake transporters of dopamine and norepinephrine, which prolongs their duration in the synapse to bind more readily to the receptors. Since it works in the brain, Lisdexamfetamine crosses the blood-brain barrier through diffusion. Dopamine is synthesized in the ventral tegmental area of the brain from tyrosine being synthesized into L-dopa by the enzyme Tyrosine 3-monooxygenase . L-Dopa is then synthesized into dopamine with the enzyme aromatic-L-amino-acid decarboxylase. Dopamine then travels to the prefrontal cortex, which is released into the synapse when the neuron is stimulated and fires. Lisdexamfetamine binds to the sodium-dependent dopamine transporter, which prevents dopamine from re-entering the presynaptic neuron. The dopamine then binds to Dopamine D4 receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. The dopamine D4 receptor activates the Gi protein cascade, which inhibits adenylate cyclase. This prevents adenylate cyclase from catalyzing ATP into cAMP. The low concentration of cAMP is unable to activate protein kinase A, which prevents or lowers neuronal excitability. It is unknown how exactly this helps with ADHD, but it is speculated to help by regulating attention, movement, and impulsivity to a greater degree. Other dopamine and norepinephrine receptors are likely also involved, but the main receptors complicit in ADHD are the dopamine D4 receptor and the alpha-2A adrenergic receptor. This helps people with ADHD to sustain attention and working memory.

Lisinopril is angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor for the conversion of angiotensin I into angiotensin II. Angiotensin II is a critical circulating peptide hormone that has powerful vasoconstrictive effects and increases blood pressure. Lisinopril is used to treat hypertension, high blood pressure, congestive heart failure, and chronic renal failure as it decreases blood pressure. Lisinopril is not a prodrug which travels in the blood to inhibit ACE which is from the lungs. Angiotensin has many vasoconstrictive effects by binding to angiotensin II type 1 receptors (AT1) in blood vessels, kidneys, hypothalamus, and posterior pituitary. In blood vessels, AT1 receptors cause vasoconstriction in the tunica media layer of smooth muscle surrounding blood vessels increasing blood pressure. Less angiotensin II that is circulating lowers the constriction of these blood vessels. AT1 receptors in the kidney are responsible for the production of aldosterone which increases salt and water retention which increases blood volume. Less angiotensin II reduces aldosterone production allowing water retention to not increase. AT1 receptors in the hypothalamus are on astrocytes which inhibit the excitatory amino acid transporter 3 from up-taking glutamate back into astrocytes. Glutamate is responsible for the activation of NMDA receptors on paraventricular nucleus neurons (PVN neurons) that lead to thirst sensation. Since angiotensin II levels are lowered, the inhibition of the uptake transporter is not limited decreasing the amount of glutamate activating NMDA on PVN neurons that makes the individual crave drinking less. This lowers the blood volume as well. Lastly, the AT1 receptors on posterior pituitary gland are responsible for the release of vasopressin. Vasopressin is an anti-diuretic hormone that cases water reabsorption in the kidney as well as causing smooth muscle contraction in blood vessels increasing blood pressure. Less angiotensin II activating vasopressin release inhibits blood pressure from increasing. Overall, Lisinopril inhibits the conversion of angiotensin I into angiotensin II, a powerful vasoconstrictor and mediator of high blood pressure so decreasing levels of angiotensin will help reduce blood pressure from climbing in individuals.

Benazepril, brand name Lotensin, belongs to the class of drugs known as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and is used primarily to lower high blood pressure (hypertension). This drug can also be used in the treatment of congestive heart failure and type II diabetes. Benazepril is a prodrug which, following oral administration, undergoes biotransformation in vivo into its active form benazeprilat via cleavage of its ester group by the liver. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) is a component of the body's renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) and cleaves inactive angiotensin I into the active vasoconstrictor angiotensin II. ACE (or kininase II) also degrades the potent vasodilator bradykinin. Consequently, ACE inhibitors decrease angiotensin II concentrations and increase bradykinin concentrations resulting in blood vessel dilation and thereby lowering blood pressure.

LAP from L. monocytogenes interact with human intestinal epithelial cells HSP60

Lisuride is an anti-Parkinson drug chemically related to the dopaminergic ergoline Parkinson's drugs. Lisuride binds to the 5-HT(1A) and 5-HT(2A/2C) receptors. Lisuride is an ergot derivative that acts as an agonist at dopamine D2 receptors (dopamine agonists). It may also act as an antagonist at dopamine D1 receptors, and as an agonist at some serotonin receptors (serotonin agonists).

Lisuride is a drug that is not metabolized by the human body as determined by current research and biotransformer analysis. Lisuride passes through the liver and is then excreted from the body mainly through the kidney.

Lisuride is an anti-Parkinson drug chemically related to the dopaminergic ergoline Parkinson's drugs. Lisuride binds to the 5-HT(1A) and 5-HT(2A/2C) receptors. Lisuride is an ergot derivative that acts as an agonist at dopamine D2 receptors (dopamine agonists). It may also act as an antagonist at dopamine D1 receptors, and as an agonist at some serotonin receptors (serotonin agonists).