Pathways

The biosynthesis of steroids begins with acetyl coa being turned into acetoacetyl through a acetoacetyl CoA thiolase. Acetoacetyl -CoA reacts with an acetyl-CoA and water through a 3-hydroxy 3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A synthase resulting in the release of coenzyme A, hydrogen ion and (S)-3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA. The latter compound reacts with NADPH and a hydrogen ion through a 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A resulting in the release of coenzyme A , NADP and mevalonate. Mevalonate is then phosphorylated through an ATP driven kinase mevalonate kinase resulting in the release of ADP, hydrogen ion and mevalonate 5-phosphate. The latter compound is phosphorylated through an ATP driven kinase, phosphomevalonate kinase resulting in the release of ADP and mevalonate diphosphate. This latter compound then reacts with an ATP driven mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase resulting in the release of ADP, carbon dioxide, a phosphate and a isopentenyl diphosphate. The latter compound can be isomerized into dimethylallyl diphosphate or reacth with a dimethylallyl diphosphate to produce geranyl diphosphate. Geranyl diphosphate reacts with a isopentenyl through a farnesyl diphosphate synthase resulting in the release of diphosphate and farnesyl diphosphate. The latter compound reacts with hydrogen ion, NADPH through a squalene synthetase resulting in the release NADP, pyrophosphate and squalene. The latter compound reacts with hydrogen ion NADPH and oxygen through squalene monooxygenase resulting in the release of NADP, Water and (3S)-2,3-epoxy-2,3-dihydrosqualene. The latter compound reacts through a 2,3-oxidosqualene lanosterol cyclase resulting in the release of lanosterol. Lanosterol reacts with hydrogen ion, NADPH, and oxygen through a cytochrome P450 lanosterol 14a demethylase resulting in the release of formate, water, NADP and 14-demethyllanosterol. The latter compound reacts with hydrogen ion and NADPH through a c-14 sterol reductase resulting in the release of NADP and 4,4-dimethylzymosterol. The latter compound reacts with methylsterol monooxygenase resulting in the release of 4α-hydroxymethyl-4β-methyl-5α-cholesta-8,24-dien-3β-ol which reacts with methylsterol monooxygenase twice to obtain 4α-carboxy-4β-methyl-5α-cholesta-8,24-dien-3β-ol. The latter compound then reacts with an NADP C-3 sterol dehydrogenase resulting in the release of water, NADP and 3-dehydro-4-methylzymosterol. The latter compound then reacts with NADPH and a hydrogen ion through a 3-keto sterol reductase resulting in the release of NADP and 4alpha-methyl-zymosterol. The latter compound then reacts with a methylsterol monooxygenase 3 times, followed by one reaction with c-sterol dehydrogenase and one reaction with 3-keto sterol reductase resulting in the release of a zymosterol. The latter compound reacts with SAM through a sterol methyltransferase resulting in the release of s-adenosylhomocysteine and fecosterol. Fecosterol is isomerized into episterol. The latter compound reacts with c-5 sterol desaturase resulting in the release of ergosta-5,7,24(28)-trien-3β-ol which then reacts with a c-22 sterol desaturase resulting in the release of ergosta-5,7,22,24(28)-tetraen-3-β-ol. This latter compound then reacts with a C-24 sterol reductase resulting in the release of an ergosterol.

The biosynthesis of steroids begins with acetyl coa being turned into acetoacetyl through a acetoacetyl CoA thiolase. Acetoacetyl -CoA reacts with an acetyl-CoA and water through a 3-hydroxy 3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A synthase resulting in the release of coenzyme A, hydrogen ion and (S)-3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA. The latter compound reacts with NADPH and a hydrogen ion through a 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A resulting in the release of coenzyme A , NADP and mevalonate. Mevalonate is then phosphorylated through an ATP driven kinase mevalonate kinase resulting in the release of ADP, hydrogen ion and mevalonate 5-phosphate. The latter compound is phosphorylated through an ATP driven kinase, phosphomevalonate kinase resulting in the release of ADP and mevalonate diphosphate. This latter compound then reacts with an ATP driven mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase resulting in the release of ADP, carbon dioxide, a phosphate and a isopentenyl diphosphate. The latter compound can be isomerized into dimethylallyl diphosphate or reacth with a dimethylallyl diphosphate to produce geranyl diphosphate. Geranyl diphosphate reacts with a isopentenyl through a farnesyl diphosphate synthase resulting in the release of diphosphate and farnesyl diphosphate. The latter compound reacts with hydrogen ion, NADPH through a squalene synthetase resulting in the release NADP, pyrophosphate and squalene. The latter compound reacts with hydrogen ion NADPH and oxygen through squalene monooxygenase resulting in the release of NADP, Water and (3S)-2,3-epoxy-2,3-dihydrosqualene. The latter compound reacts through a 2,3-oxidosqualene lanosterol cyclase resulting in the release of lanosterol. Lanosterol reacts with hydrogen ion, NADPH, and oxygen through a cytochrome P450 lanosterol 14a demethylase resulting in the release of formate, water, NADP and 14-demethyllanosterol. The latter compound reacts with hydrogen ion and NADPH through a c-14 sterol reductase resulting in the release of NADP and 4,4-dimethylzymosterol. The latter compound reacts with methylsterol monooxygenase resulting in the release of 4α-hydroxymethyl-4β-methyl-5α-cholesta-8,24-dien-3β-ol which reacts with methylsterol monooxygenase twice to obtain 4α-carboxy-4β-methyl-5α-cholesta-8,24-dien-3β-ol. The latter compound then reacts with an NADP C-3 sterol dehydrogenase resulting in the release of water, NADP and 3-dehydro-4-methylzymosterol. The latter compound then reacts with NADPH and a hydrogen ion through a 3-keto sterol reductase resulting in the release of NADP and 4alpha-methyl-zymosterol. The latter compound then reacts with a methylsterol monooxygenase 3 times, followed by one reaction with c-sterol dehydrogenase and one reaction with 3-keto sterol reductase resulting in the release of a zymosterol. The latter compound reacts with SAM through a sterol methyltransferase resulting in the release of s-adenosylhomocysteine and fecosterol. Fecosterol is isomerized into episterol. The latter compound reacts with c-5 sterol desaturase resulting in the release of ergosta-5,7,24(28)-trien-3β-ol which then reacts with a c-22 sterol desaturase resulting in the release of ergosta-5,7,22,24(28)-tetraen-3-β-ol. This latter compound then reacts with a C-24 sterol reductase resulting in the release of an ergosterol.

Steroidogenesis is a process that through the transformations of other steroids, produces a desired steroid. Some of these desired steroids include cortisol, corticoids, testosterone, estrogens, aldosterone and progesterone. To begin the synthesis of steroid hormones, cholesterol synthesizes a hormone called pregnenolone. This is done by cholesterol from the cytosol or lysosome being brought to the mitochondria and becoming fixed in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Once there, the cholesterol becomes pregnenolone through three reactions. The enzyme responsible for catalyzing all three reactions is CYP11A, a side chain cleavage enzyme. After being created, the pregnenolone enters the cytosol, where the cholesterol originated. Once in the cytosol, pregenolone synthesizes progesterone, using two reactions. These two reactions are both catalyzed by an enzyme called 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/isomerase. The enzyme CYP21A2 then hydroxylates progesterone, which converts it to deoxycorticosterone. Deoxycorticosterone then undergoes three reactions catalyzed by CYP11B2 to become aldosterone. 17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone is created from pregnenolone by using 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/isomerase. CYP21A2 then hydroxylates 17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone which results in the production of 11-deoxycortisol. CYP11B1 quickly converts 11-deoxycortisol to cortisol. Cortisol is an active steroid hormone, and its conversion to the inactive cortisone has been known to occur in various tissues, with increased conversion occurring in the liver. Pregnenolone is an important hormone as it is responsible for the beginning of the synthesis of many hormones not pictured in this pathway such as testosterone and estrogen. Cortisol receptors are found in almost every bodily cell, so this hormone affects a wide range of body functions. Some of these functions include metabolism regulation, inflammation reduction, regulating blood sugar levels and blood pressure, and helps with the formation of memories.

Steroidogenesis is a process that through the transformations of other steroids, produces a desired steroid. Some of these desired steroids include cortisol, corticoids, testosterone, estrogens, aldosterone and progesterone. To begin the synthesis of steroid hormones, cholesterol synthesizes a hormone called pregnenolone. This is done by cholesterol from the cytosol or lysosome being brought to the mitochondria and becoming fixed in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Once there, the cholesterol becomes pregnenolone through three reactions. The enzyme responsible for catalyzing all three reactions is CYP11A, a side chain cleavage enzyme. After being created, the pregnenolone enters the cytosol, where the cholesterol originated. Once in the cytosol, pregenolone synthesizes progesterone, using two reactions. These two reactions are both catalyzed by an enzyme called 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/isomerase. The enzyme CYP21A2 then hydroxylates progesterone, which converts it to deoxycorticosterone. Deoxycorticosterone then undergoes three reactions catalyzed by CYP11B2 to become aldosterone. 17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone is created from pregnenolone by using 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/isomerase. CYP21A2 then hydroxylates 17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone which results in the production of 11-deoxycortisol. CYP11B1 quickly converts 11-deoxycortisol to cortisol. Cortisol is an active steroid hormone, and its conversion to the inactive cortisone has been known to occur in various tissues, with increased conversion occurring in the liver. Pregnenolone is an important hormone as it is responsible for the beginning of the synthesis of many hormones not pictured in this pathway such as testosterone and estrogen. Cortisol receptors are found in almost every bodily cell, so this hormone affects a wide range of body functions. Some of these functions include metabolism regulation, inflammation reduction, regulating blood sugar levels and blood pressure, and helps with the formation of memories.

Steroidogenesis is a process that through the transformations of other steroids, produces a desired steroid. Some of these desired steroids include cortisol, corticoids, testosterone, estrogens, aldosterone and progesterone. To begin the synthesis of steroid hormones, cholesterol synthesizes a hormone called pregnenolone. This is done by cholesterol from the cytosol or lysosome being brought to the mitochondria and becoming fixed in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Once there, the cholesterol becomes pregnenolone through three reactions. The enzyme responsible for catalyzing all three reactions is CYP11A, a side chain cleavage enzyme. After being created, the pregnenolone enters the cytosol, where the cholesterol originated. Once in the cytosol, pregenolone synthesizes progesterone, using two reactions. These two reactions are both catalyzed by an enzyme called 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/isomerase. The enzyme CYP21A2 then hydroxylates progesterone, which converts it to deoxycorticosterone. Deoxycorticosterone then undergoes three reactions catalyzed by CYP11B2 to become aldosterone. 17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone is created from pregnenolone by using 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/isomerase. CYP21A2 then hydroxylates 17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone which results in the production of 11-deoxycortisol. CYP11B1 quickly converts 11-deoxycortisol to cortisol. Cortisol is an active steroid hormone, and its conversion to the inactive cortisone has been known to occur in various tissues, with increased conversion occurring in the liver. Pregnenolone is an important hormone as it is responsible for the beginning of the synthesis of many hormones not pictured in this pathway such as testosterone and estrogen. Cortisol receptors are found in almost every bodily cell, so this hormone affects a wide range of body functions. Some of these functions include metabolism regulation, inflammation reduction, regulating blood sugar levels and blood pressure, and helps with the formation of memories.

Steroidogenesis is a process that through the transformations of other steroids, produces a desired steroid. Some of these desired steroids include cortisol, corticoids, testosterone, estrogens, aldosterone and progesterone. To begin the synthesis of steroid hormones, cholesterol synthesizes a hormone called pregnenolone. This is done by cholesterol from the cytosol or lysosome being brought to the mitochondria and becoming fixed in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Once there, the cholesterol becomes pregnenolone through three reactions. The enzyme responsible for catalyzing all three reactions is CYP11A, a side chain cleavage enzyme. After being created, the pregnenolone enters the cytosol, where the cholesterol originated. Once in the cytosol, pregenolone synthesizes progesterone, using two reactions. These two reactions are both catalyzed by an enzyme called 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/isomerase. The enzyme CYP21A2 then hydroxylates progesterone, which converts it to deoxycorticosterone. Deoxycorticosterone then undergoes three reactions catalyzed by CYP11B2 to become aldosterone. 17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone is created from pregnenolone by using 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/isomerase. CYP21A2 then hydroxylates 17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone which results in the production of 11-deoxycortisol. CYP11B1 quickly converts 11-deoxycortisol to cortisol. Cortisol is an active steroid hormone, and its conversion to the inactive cortisone has been known to occur in various tissues, with increased conversion occurring in the liver. Pregnenolone is an important hormone as it is responsible for the beginning of the synthesis of many hormones not pictured in this pathway such as testosterone and estrogen. Cortisol receptors are found in almost every bodily cell, so this hormone affects a wide range of body functions. Some of these functions include metabolism regulation, inflammation reduction, regulating blood sugar levels and blood pressure, and helps with the formation of memories.

Stilbenoids are a family of phenylpropanoids which contain a 1,2-diphenylethylene moiety that exist in the plant kingdom and have a variety of biological functions (PMID: 23014926). Diarylheptanoids are another group of phenylpropanoids that are found in plants which have a 1,7-diphenylheptane skeleton (PMID: 21121274). Gingerols are a group of compounds containing a gingerol moiety, some of which are known to be useful for medication purposes (PMID: 26228533). In Arabidopsis, the stilbenoid, diarylheptanoid, and gingerol biosynthesis pathway takes place in the endoplasmic reticulum. This pathway involves coumaroyl-CoA sourced either directly from phenylpropanoid biosynthesis or derived from cinnamoyl-CoA in a reaction catalyzed by cinnamate-4-hydroxylase. Removal of a CoA group from coumaroyl-CoA and a reaction of coumaroyl-CoA with either shikimic acid or quinic acid produces 4-coumaroylshikimic acid or coumaroyl quinic acid. This is catalyzed by hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA shikimate/quinate hydroxycinnamoyl transferase. CYP98A3 enzyme catalyzes hydroxylation of the products to produce caffeoylshikimic acid or chlorogenic acid respectively. Further reaction of products with CoA, catalyzed again by hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA shikimate/quinate hydroxycinnamoyl transferase, produces caffeoyl-CoA. Caffeoyl-CoA is then reacted with S-adenosyl-L-methionine to produce feruloyl-CoA with catalyzation by caffeoyl-CoA O-methyltransferase. 1-dehydro-6-gingerdione and 6-gingerol may then be further derived from feruloyl-CoA.