Browsing Pathways

Ductal patency

The transcription of DNA is aided in large part by something called "homeodomain transcription factors". They are a diverse group of DNA binding factors. In fact, genes which are created with the aid of homeodomain factors tend to conglomerate and are responsible for anterior-posterior patterning. There is much to be said as well regarding the development and growth of cardiac myocytes and homedomain transcription factors. Indeed, at the early stages of the cell differentiation of cardiac myoctes a delicate balance of joint expression of several factors is needed for correct development (namely: serum response factor (SRF), and GATA4) and a homeodomain factor known as Nkx2-5! The joint expression of the aforementioned factors is the critical in the development of myocytes as well as gene expression in the cardiac region. To underline the importance of the homeodomain transcription factors, note that an error in the Nkx2-5 gene has severe consequences, which include, though are not necessarily limited to, embryonic lethality, as well as severe problems in general heart development. To put all this in context of the pathway in question, Hop actually stands for (Homeodomain Only Protein). The Hop gene plays an important role in the cardiac development we have been describing, as it too encodes a homedomain factor which plays an important role at the onset stages of cardiac development. The Hop gene is downstream of the Mkx2-5 factor we discussed earlier, and similar to it, improper activation of Hop can lead to severe cardiac development issues. In mice for example, not have the Hop gene results in alterations to the cell cycle. In particular, cardiac cells are unable to exit the cycle at the correct stage and continue grow after normal developmental stage has finished. There exists an interesting symbiosis between Hop and SRF. First, Hop regulates gene expression by either binding to SRF or by preventing SRF binding to DNA. This occurs because Hop does not have anything to bind to DNA with, and as such must have different methods to regulate gene expression. Second, when Hop blocks normal SRF binding, the results is that the activation of genes in the heart is affected and normal development does not occur. In a nutshell, what can be said about this tango action of SRF and Hop is this: during the first stages of development, what is observed is that the Hop interaction is one which results in a cessation of the differentiation processes which are induced by SRF. In the later stages, it appears that Hop reduces cell proliferation which is normally caused by SRF.

Proline-, glutamic acid-, and leucine-rich protein 1 (PELP1) is a scaffolding protein that functions as a coregulator of several transcription factors and nuclear receptors. Notably, the PELP1 protein has a histone-binding domain, recognizes histone modifications and interacts with several chromatin-modifying complexes. PELP1 serves as a substrate of multitude of kinases, and phosphorylation regulates its functions in various complexes. Further, PELP1 plays essential roles in several pathways including hormonal signaling, cell cycle progression, ribosomal biogenesis, and the DNA damage response. PELP1 expression is upregulated in several cancers, its deregulation contributes to therapy resistance, and it is a prognostic biomarker for breast cancer survival. Recent evidence suggests that PELP1 represents a novel therapeutic target for many hormonal cancers.

Angiotensin is a peptide hormone that causes vasoconstriction and a subsequent increase in blood pressure. It is part of the renin-angiotensin system, which is a major target for drugs that lower blood pressure. Angiotensin also stimulates the release of aldosterone, another hormone, from the adrenal cortex. Aldosterone promotes sodium retention in the distal nephron, in the kidney, which also drives blood pressure up. (Wikipedia)

The proximal convoluted tubule is part of the nephron between the Bowman's capsule and the loop of Henle. The proximal convoluted tubule functions to reabsorb sodium, water, and other ions. Sodium and bicarbonate (hydrogen carbonate) are transported by a co-transporter that is responsible for the majority of sodium reabsorption. The bicarbonate, along with hydrogen, are exchanged across the basal and apical membranes, respectively, to effectively regulate the pH of the filtrate. In addition, chloride ions are not normally reabsorbed in large amounts at the proximal tubule compared to other parts of the nephron. However, the reabsorption of chloride, as well as potassium, increases as the amount of water reabsorption increases due to solvent drag (also known as bulk transport). This occurrence explains solute movement secondary to water flow. All the cation and anion transport creates a gradient favourable for ion and water reabsorption, leading to an increase in blood pressure.

Muscle contractions occur when the myocyte is depolarized enough for an action potential to occur. Depolarization is caused by acetylcholine released from the adjacent motor neuron, which activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and opens the sodium/potassium channel. The fast influx of sodium and slow efflux of potassion trigger the action potential. This action potential activates L-type voltage-dependent calcium channels on the membrane and ryanodine receptors on the sarcoplasmic reticulum, both which cause calcium ions to be released into the cytosol. In smooth muscle, ionic calcium induces muscle contraction by binding to and activating myosin light chain kinase, while in striated muscle contraction results from ionic calcium binding to and activating troponin C.

The loop of Henle of the nephron can be separated into an ascending limb and the descending limb. The ascending limb is highly impermeable to water, but permeable to solutes. Conversely, the descending limb is highly impermeable to solutes such as sodium, but permeable to water. As solutes are being actively transported out of the ascending limb, the solutes cause in increase in osmotic pressure. This, combined with the ability for water to move freely out of the descending limb, leads to a water reabsorption into the adjacent capillary network and a high concentration of sodium in the filtrate at the descending Limb. Water moves from the descending loop to the capillary network through aquaporin channels in the cell membrane.

The loop of Henle of the nephron can be separated into an ascending limb and the descending limb. The descending limb is highly impermeable to solutes such as sodium, but permeable to water. Conversely, the ascending limb is highly impermeable to water, but permeable to solutes. Chloride, potassium, and sodium are co-transported across the apical membrane (closest to the lumen) via transporters from the filtrate. The transporter requires all three ions present to be effective and to maintain electroneutrality. In addition, the three ions are transported across the basolateral membrane (closest to the renal interstitium) via other means such as the sodium potassium ATPase transports and the chloride channels in the membrane. As these solutes are being actively transported out of the ascending limb and into the renal interstitium/capillary network without water following (due to the lack of water permeability), the filtrate becomes more diluted. Furthermore, these ions simultaneously causes an increase in osmotic pressure that contributes to water reabsorption in the descending limb. This effect can be magnified with the help of vasopressin, which is a hormone that is typically involved with water reabsorption. However, when it acts on the ascending limb, it aids in increasing sodium reabsorption which will increase water reabsorption in the latter parts of the nephron (the distal tubule and collecting duct).