Pathways

Caffeine is obtained from diet including coffee and other beverages and is absorbed in the stomach and small intestine. In the liver, the cytochrome P450 oxidase enzyme system and specifically CYP1A2 metabolizes caffeine into paraxanthine to increase lipolysis and increase free fatty acids and glycerol levels in the blood, theobromine to dilate blood vessels and increase urine volume and theophylline which relaxes bronchi smooth muscles. In the lysosome, these metabolites undergo further metabolism into methyluric acids before being excreted in the urine. There is genetic variability in the metabolism of caffeine due to the polymorphism of CYP1A2. This variability can affect the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of caffeine and may affect an individual's consumption.

Caffeine is a stimulant present in tea, coffee, cola beverages, analgesic drugs, and agents used to increase alertness. The cardiovascular effects are extensive and can help with headaches, migraines, or other types of pain in certain circumstances. Caffeine is mainly studied using coffee which has other chemicals present in it. This means that much of the research is not well understood, and there is much conflicting data on caffeine. Caffeine antagonizes adenosine A1 receptors in sympathetic nerves that innervate the heart muscles. Adenosine A1 receptors inhibit the release of catecholamines like norepinephrine from neurons that innervate the heart muscles. The antagonism of adenosine A1 receptors allows more norepinephrine to be released into the synapse where it causes contractions of the heart muscles through the norepinephrine subpathway. This leads to increased heartrate.

Caffeine is a stimulant present in tea, coffee, cola beverages, analgesic drugs, and agents used to increase alertness. The cardiovascular effects are extensive and can help with headaches, migraines, or other types of pain in certain circumstances. Caffeine is mainly studied using coffee which has other chemicals present in it. This means that much of the research is not well understood, and there is much conflicting data on caffeine. Caffeine antagonizes the adenosine A2A receptor in blood vessels in the neck and head. The adenosine A2A receptors likely have a higher affinity for caffeine in the head and neck. The adenosine A2A receptor activates adenylate cyclase which catalyzes ATP into cAMP. cAMP inhibits myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), therefore the low concentration of cAMP allows MLCK to be activated by calcium activated calmodulin so it can phosphorylate myosin light chain and cause muscle contraction. The contraction of the muscle in the blood vessel causes vasoconstriction. Adenosine A2a receptors in the head and neck also stimulate the production of nitric oxide which causes vasodilation as seen in another part of this pathway, therefore, the antagonism of these receptors further leads to vasoconstriction in the head and neck. The vasoconstriction in the head and neck helps with migraines and headaches which are causes by vasodilation, but the understanding of this isn't well studied, and caffeine has also been found to cause headaches as well. Chronic caffeine intake leads to an adaptation to the vasoconstritive effects. The opposite effects of caffeine is called the coffee-effect and based on the population of receptors in that area of the body, as well as their affinity for caffeine. This causes vasodilation in the majority of the human body, but vasoconstriction in the head and neck.

Cadmium (Cd(2+)) exposure increases the risk of cancer in humans and animals. Humans may come into contact with cadmium when smoking and ingesting contaminated food. This will increase the risk of lung cancer and prostate cancer. In the millimolar range, cadmium will inhibit cell growth. Cadmium induces DNA synthesis and proliferation and affects signal transduction and mobilization in macrophages. At micromolar concentrations, cadmium significantly increased cell division as judged by thymidine uptake and cell counts. Activating this pathway will increase the availability of the transcription factor NF(kappa)B and will activate the early genes c-fos and c-myc.

Cadmium (Cd(2+)) exposure increases the risk of cancer in humans and animals. Humans may come into contact with cadmium when smoking and ingesting contaminated food. This will increase the risk of lung cancer and prostate cancer. In the millimolar range, cadmium will inhibit cell growth. Cadmium induces DNA synthesis and proliferation and affects signal transduction and mobilization in macrophages. At micromolar concentrations, cadmium significantly increased cell division as judged by thymidine uptake and cell counts. Activating this pathway will increase the availability of the transcription factor NF(kappa)B and will activate the early genes c-fos and c-myc.

Cadmium (Cd(2+)) exposure increases the risk of cancer in humans and animals. Humans may come into contact with cadmium when smoking and ingesting contaminated food. This will increase the risk of lung cancer and prostate cancer. In the millimolar range, cadmium will inhibit cell growth. Cadmium induces DNA synthesis and proliferation and affects signal transduction and mobilization in macrophages. At micromolar concentrations, cadmium significantly increased cell division as judged by thymidine uptake and cell counts. Activating this pathway will increase the availability of the transcription factor NF(kappa)B and will activate the early genes c-fos and c-myc.

Complejos transportadores de electrones (I, II, III y IV) para la generación de gradiente de protones en la mitocondria y fosforilación oxidativa para generar energía (ATP) mediante ATP sintasa.

Complejos transportadores de electrones (I, II, III y IV) para la generación de gradiente de protones en la mitocondria y fosforilación oxidativa para generar energía (ATP) mediante ATP sintasa.

Metabolites of Cabozantinib are predicted with biotransformer.